06/10/2026
Islam’s History & Why it is False
In 2013, during a trip to Israel, I brought my then 12-year-old son with me. One of the highlights of the journey was gaining access to the Temple Mount, something that was far more difficult to do at that time than it is today. As we walked the grounds and listened to our guide explain the history and significance of the site, we were directed toward a nearby building. Looking through the open windows of its second floor, we observed a group of children, perhaps eight or nine years old up through their early teens, wearing green headbands and raising their fists in unison as they shouted slogans in Arabic. We were told they were chanting, "Death to the Jews, death to America, death to Israel."
The scene left a lasting impression on me. Years later, when the atrocities of October 7 occurred, my mind immediately returned to that moment. I turned to my son, who was then in his early twenties, and asked him a sobering question: "How many of those children do you think participated in what happened that day?" Whether or not any of them did is impossible to know, but the incident reinforced a reality that has concerned many observers for decades—the power of ideology to shape minds from a young age.
Around that same period, I was teaching a course on world religions and spent considerable time examining Islam, its history, doctrines, and influence on world events. As I continued to study, the evidence surrounding Islam demonstrated that it was not merely political or cultural but deeply spiritual. This led me to begin assembling a concise examination of why I believe Islam is a false religion and why its teachings stand in direct opposition to the biblical revelation of God. From a Christian perspective, humanity was created in the image of God (Genesis 1:26) and is called into a relationship with Him through Jesus Christ to become an imager of Him.
One cannot understand the modern Middle East, Islamic expansion, Christian-Muslim relations, or the geopolitical tensions of the present day without first understanding the world into which Muhammad was born and the religious influences that shaped the development of Islam. Maps showing the vast extent of Christianity throughout the Roman and Byzantine worlds before Islam show that Christianity had spread far beyond Jerusalem and Judea. It stretched throughout the Roman Empire, into North Africa, across Egypt, through Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, and even into India and China through missionary activity. The lands that are now often associated with Islam were, in the centuries before Muhammad, overwhelmingly Christian.
The Roman Empire dominated much of the Mediterranean world. After the western portion of the empire declined, the eastern portion, known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to flourish. This Byzantine Empire was thoroughly Christian and controlled much of the Middle East. To the east stood the Persian Empire, centered in what is modern Iran. The Persians followed the religion of Zoroastrianism and had fought wars with the Byzantine Christians for centuries. These two great powers exhausted one another through constant warfare, leaving what seemed to be a power vacuum into which Islam would eventually emerge.
Muhammad was born around 570 AD in the city of Mecca. His life began under difficult circumstances. His father died before he was born. When Muhammad was six years old, his mother died. At age eight, his grandfather, who had become his guardian, also died. He was then raised by his uncle, Abu Talib. As a young man, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on merchant journeys throughout Arabia. These trading expeditions exposed him to a wide variety of religious traditions. Arabia at that time was a crossroads of cultures and faiths. Pagan tribes, Jewish communities, Christian sects, and Persian influences all interacted throughout the region.
Many elements from these various religious traditions eventually found their way into Muhammad's developing belief system. One influence he identifies is Manichaeism, a religion founded by a Persian teacher named Mani. Mani taught that there were elements of truth present in many different religions. Muhammad encountered such ideas during his travels, and this concept of drawing from multiple traditions may have influenced his thinking. In another example of his pulling from other religions, specifically, the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism, it played a significant role in the region. Zoroastrian concepts of paradise included imagery of virgins and pleasures awaiting the faithful in the afterlife. Some of these concepts later appeared within Islamic descriptions of paradise. Zoroastrian traditions also included beliefs about supernatural beings similar to genies or spirits.
Arabia itself was filled with pagan religious practices. At the center of Meccan religious life stood the Kaaba, a cube-shaped structure that housed hundreds of idols representing various gods worshiped by Arabian tribes. One of the most prominent deities associated with Arabian paganism was Hubal, whom he identifies as a moon god. Arabian religious practices revolved around lunar calendars and observation of the crescent moon. The Kaaba also housed a famous black stone. Pilgrims traveled great distances to kiss the stone and circle the structure in acts of devotion. Muhammad himself later kissed the stone and retained the pilgrimage traditions associated with the Kaaba after establishing Islam. He points to biblical references such as Judges 8:21 and Judges 8:26, which mention crescent ornaments, arguing that moon symbolism had long been associated with pagan worship in the region.
In southern Arabia, Muhammad would also have encountered the Sabians, a group known for ritual washings and purification ceremonies. Some of these practices influenced later Islamic purification rituals. On another note, Muhammad was unable to read or write. The very word "Quran" means "recitation," reflecting the oral nature of the faith's earliest transmission. Since Muhammad was illiterate, he did not personally study the Hebrew Scriptures or Christian writings. Instead, he encountered stories from Jews and Christians through oral traditions. The Jews possessed not only the Hebrew Scriptures but also oral traditions preserved in sources such as the Mishnah and later the Talmud. Christians likewise told stories about biblical figures and saints. Many of these orally transmitted accounts became part of Muhammad's understanding of biblical history.
One example we can identify for sure is Muhammad's initial practice of directing prayer toward Jerusalem. During the early months of his ministry, his followers faced Jerusalem when praying, before the direction was later changed toward Mecca. The Encyclopedia Britannica states that Muhammad's knowledge of Christianity came primarily through apocryphal and heretical sources rather than through direct contact with orthodox Christian theology. Also among these sources was the Infancy Gospel of Thomas, an apocryphal work written centuries after Jesus. This text contains stories not found in the New Testament, including accounts of Jesus creating birds from clay and bringing them to life, speaking from infancy, and performing miracles as a child. These stories never became part of orthodox Christian teaching or even believability, yet similar narratives appear within the Quran. One can trace this as evidence that Muhammad encountered Christianity primarily through unofficial traditions rather than biblical texts.
Another misunderstanding concerns Muhammad's conception of the Trinity. According to his presentation, Muhammad appeared to understand the Trinity as consisting of God the Father, Mary, and Jesus, rather than Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as taught by mainstream Christianity. At the same time, Arabia was experiencing the influence of Christian monasticism. Beginning with figures such as Saint Anthony of the Desert, Christian hermits withdrew into wilderness areas to devote themselves to prayer and contemplation. Muhammad was familiar with these ascetic traditions. Seemingly, taking from these stories of individuals, one influential monastic figure was Saint Benedict, whose Rule of Benedict organized daily life around specific hours of prayer. This indicates Muhammad may have been exposed to these concepts and that they influenced the Islamic practice of praying at designated times throughout the day.
In 595 AD, at approximately twenty-five years of age, Muhammad married a wealthy widow named Khadijah, who was about forty years old. Because of her wealth, Muhammad was no longer required to devote himself entirely to commerce. This allowed him to spend increasing amounts of time in solitude and contemplation. Muhammad also often retreated to a cave near Mecca to meditate and pray. It was during one of these retreats that he experienced the event that Muslims regard as the beginning of divine revelation.
According to Islamic tradition, a spirit appeared to Muhammad and commanded him to read. Muhammad responded that he could not read. The spirit repeated the command. Again, Muhammad replied that he was unable to read. A third time the spirit commanded him, and when Muhammad still protested his inability, the spirit reportedly squeezed him and words began to come forth. However, the Quran was not initially written down. Muhammad would receive these revelations orally, recite them aloud, and commit them to memory. Others would memorize them as well. Arabic poetry and recitation possessed a strong rhythmic structure. Much of the Quran was composed in a style that facilitated memorization. This enabled illiterate individuals to retain large portions of the text through oral repetition.
After these encounters, Muhammad returned to Khadijah deeply troubled. According to early Islamic biographies, Muhammad feared that he might be possessed by a spirit or demon. The earliest biography of Muhammad, commonly attributed to Ibn Ishaq, records Muhammad expressing concern that he might be possessed. Khadijah sought to determine the nature of the spirit appearing to her husband. According to the account, she devised a test. When the spirit appeared, she asked Muhammad whether he could still see it while changing his position. First, she had him sit on one thigh. Then she had him sit on the other. Finally, she removed her veil and exposed herself.
At that point, Muhammad reportedly said the spirit disappeared. Khadijah concluded from this that the spirit must be an angel rather than a demon. There is a contrast to this in the biblical method for testing spirits. 1 John 4:3, states that every spirit that does not confess Jesus Christ is not from God and is the spirit of antichrist. 2 Corinthians 11:14, Paul warns that Satan can disguise himself as an angel of light, and Galatians 1:8, where Paul declares that even if an angel preaches another gospel, it is to be rejected seem to indicate Mohammad’s “idea plagiarization” in coalescing early Islamic tradition.
Since Muhammad was illiterate and could not read these passages, he simply lacked access to the biblical criteria for evaluating spiritual experiences. Khadijah then took Muhammad to her cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal. Waraqa belonged to a sect often identified as Ebionite Christianity. The Ebionites rejected the full deity of Jesus and viewed Him as subordinate to God. After hearing Muhammad's account, Waraqa suggested that the spirit might be the same heavenly messenger who had appeared to Moses. Shortly afterward, Waraqa died, leaving Muhammad without his primary theological advisor.
By approximately 610 AD, Muhammad began publicly proclaiming his message in Mecca. He believed his revelations contained something for everyone. Elements resonated with Jews, Christians, pagans, and others. Yet the response from the people of Mecca was overwhelmingly negative. During this period, Muhammad gained only about seventy followers. As opposition increased, Muhammad became increasingly confrontational toward Meccan society. Matters worsened when his wife Khadijah died, and shortly thereafter, his uncle Abu Talib died. These two losses deprived Muhammad of both emotional support and political protection. Without Abu Talib's influence shielding him, the leaders of Mecca became increasingly hostile. Muhammad then fled to the city of Ta'if seeking refuge, but the people there rejected him. According to Islamic tradition, they drove him away and pelted him with stones. It was after this rejection that Muhammad made the decision that would transform both his life and world history.
In 622 AD, he left Mecca and journeyed north to the city of Medina. This migration, known as the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the beginning of the next stage of Muhammad's life—the transition from religious preacher to political leader. This marked a decisive turning point in the life of Muhammad and in the history of Islam. After years of rejection in Mecca, the death of his wife Khadijah, and the loss of his uncle and protector Abu Talib, Muhammad found himself increasingly vulnerable. The people of Mecca had grown hostile toward him and his followers. After being rejected and driven away from Ta'if, where he was reportedly pelted with stones, Muhammad journeyed north to the city of Medina. This migration, known as the Hijra, became so significant that it marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the start of a new phase in Muhammad's life.
Medina was not a Muslim city. It was populated by various Arab groups and three significant Jewish clans: the Banu Qaynuqa, the Banu Nadir, and the Banu Qurayza. These clans had histories of rivalry and conflict with one another. According to Islamic history, Muhammad entered Medina as a religious refugee and was welcomed into the city. Once there, he began organizing his followers into what would become the Ummah, the community of believers. He gradually established himself as a mediator, judge, and leader among the various factions of the city. Through treaties and agreements, Muhammad acquired increasing political authority. At this point, he was no longer merely a preacher proclaiming revelations. He had become a political leader governing people and directing the affairs of a growing community.
As more Muslim refugees arrived from Mecca, economic pressures mounted. Muhammad's followers had lost homes, property, and livelihoods. According to the lecture, Muhammad allowed his followers to begin intercepting Meccan trade caravans traveling through the region. These attacks were justified as retaliation for the persecution suffered in Mecca. This is in comparison to the teachings of Jesus, who instructed His followers to respond to mistreatment with forgiveness and generosity. Muhammad, by contrast, responded to persecution with organized retaliation against Meccan commerce. These caravan raids became an important source of wealth and survival for the Muslim community. Captured goods, livestock, money, and prisoners provided resources that helped sustain Medina. Islamic traditions developed rules governing the distribution of spoils taken during these raids.
Muhammad taught that those who participated in battle would be rewarded either with earthly gains if they survived or with paradise if they died. Passages from the Quran and Hadith describe the division of b***y, with one-fifth reserved for Allah and His messenger, meaning Muhammad received a designated portion of what was captured. The fighters were motivated by both material rewards in this life and promises of reward in the next. The conflict between Mecca and Medina eventually escalated into open warfare. In 624 AD, Muhammad learned of a major Meccan caravan traveling under the protection of approximately one thousand soldiers. He assembled a force of roughly three hundred followers to confront them. The resulting engagement became known as the Battle of Badr. Despite being outnumbered more than three to one, Muhammad's forces achieved a stunning victory. This event profoundly changed the trajectory of the movement. What had begun as a small religious community suddenly appeared capable of defeating much larger armies. Muhammad and his followers viewed the victory as evidence of divine favor. It is to note that Badr marked the point at which Muhammad began to see himself not only as a prophet and political leader but also as a military commander.
Over the next several years, warfare became a regular part of Muhammad's leadership. Battles, raids, and military expeditions followed one after another. Islamic sources record dozens of military actions during the final years of Muhammad's life. The Battle of Uhud followed in 625 AD, and additional raids and confrontations continued throughout 625 and 626. The struggle with Mecca reached another critical moment in 627 AD when a coalition force estimated at ten thousand men marched against Medina. Faced with overwhelming numbers, Muhammad adopted an unusual military strategy by ordering trenches dug around the city. This defensive measure prevented cavalry attacks and neutralized one of the enemy's greatest advantages. This siege became known as the Battle of the Trench. As the confrontation dragged on, Muhammad reportedly employed diplomacy, bribery, and psychological tactics to weaken the coalition. Some members of the attacking force abandoned the campaign. Others became discouraged. Eventually, severe weather and freezing conditions further damaged morale. After days of hardship, the coalition withdrew without capturing the city. Muhammad regarded the outcome as another major victory. His enemies had failed to destroy him, and his authority in Medina emerged stronger than ever.
The aftermath of the Battle of the Trench proved especially significant for the Jewish tribes of Medina. The first Jewish tribe to face Muhammad's displeasure was the Banu Qaynuqa. Muhammad accused them of violating their treaty with him. Their agreement was declared void, and they were expelled from the city. The remaining Jewish clans did not intervene, in part because of longstanding rivalries. Later, Muhammad accused the Banu Nadir of violating their treaty as well. They, too, were expelled from Medina. Once again, the remaining Jewish tribe stood aside rather than helping them. This left them to finally lose hope.
The final Jewish tribe was the Banu Qurayza. Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad accused them of treachery and collaboration with his enemies. Islamic traditions describe how Muhammad received instructions from Gabriel directing him to move against the tribe. The Banu Qurayza were surrounded and besieged. After approximately twenty-five days, they surrendered. According to the accounts cited historically, the adult males were executed while the women and children were taken captive. Within roughly five years of Muhammad's arrival in Medina, the Jewish tribes that had originally welcomed him had either been expelled, enslaved, or destroyed. These events established patterns that would influence later Islamic history. He introduces the concept of "Hudna," describing it as the practice of making treaties during times of weakness and setting them aside once sufficient strength has been achieved. In his interpretation, Muhammad's dealings with the Jewish tribes became an example of this principle.
By this stage, Muhammad's authority was no longer limited to Medina. Military victories brought increasing prestige. Economic resources flowed into the city through tribute, captured goods, and alliances. More tribes throughout Arabia began acknowledging his leadership. What had begun as a movement of approximately seventy followers in Mecca had grown into a powerful political and military force. Muhammad was simultaneously serving as prophet, ruler, judge, lawgiver, and military commander. This combination of religious, political, and military authority became a defining characteristic of Islam.
Military campaigns continued during the final years of Muhammad's life, including actions such as the campaign against Khaybar and other expeditions against groups that opposed his authority. One tribe after another submitted to his rule or entered into agreements with the expanding Islamic state. By the time of his death in 632 AD, most of the Arabian Peninsula recognized Muhammad's authority. The once-rejected preacher who had fled Mecca now stood at the head of a powerful movement that had united much of Arabia under a single religious and political leadership. The stage was set for the next chapter, in which Muhammad's successors would carry Islam far beyond Arabia and launch one of the most rapid expansions in world history.
Muhammad's influence did not end with his death in 632 AD. In many ways, the most dramatic phase of Islamic expansion began afterward. By the time Muhammad died, most of Arabia had either submitted to his authority or entered into agreements with the growing Islamic state. What had started as a small movement centered in Mecca and Medina had become a unified religious, political, and military force. Within only a few years of Muhammad's death, that force would burst out of Arabia and begin conquering some of the most powerful empires and most ancient Christian lands in the world.
According to the Hadith, Muhammad had been given poisoned meat by a Jewish woman named Zaynab following the conquest of Khaybar. She reportedly told him that she had done so because he had killed members of her family and conquered her people. Muhammad survived the initial poisoning, but Islamic traditions record that he continued to feel its effects for years afterward. Near the end of his life, he is reported to have said to Aisha that he still felt the pain from the poisoned food and that it felt as though his aorta were being severed. In 632 AD, Muhammad died, leaving behind a rapidly growing movement but no clearly designated successor.
Within five years of his death, every pre-existing culture throughout Arabia had been subdued under Islamic rule. The tribes that had once fought one another were now united under a common faith and common leadership. Islam retained characteristics of a tribal structure in which loyalty to the group was paramount. People were free to join, but leaving the community had severe consequences. The unity that Muhammad had forged would soon be directed outward toward neighboring civilizations.
The world surrounding Arabia was uniquely vulnerable. To the north stood the Byzantine Empire, the continuation of the Christian Roman Empire. To the east stood the Persian Empire, one of the oldest and most powerful civilizations in history. For centuries, these two powers had fought devastating wars against one another. Their armies were exhausted, their treasuries depleted, and their populations weary. Into this vacuum stepped the newly united Arab armies inspired by Muhammad's example. The first step was the rapid method—military conquest through jihad. The second was the slower method—expansion through immigration and community building, which later Islamic thinkers referred to as dawah. During the first century after Muhammad's death, however, military expansion dominated. The early caliphs launched campaigns in every direction. Arabia itself had already been consolidated. Now the armies moved northward.
The first major targets were Syria and Palestine. These lands were among the earliest centers of Christianity. Syria held a unique place in Christian history. The Apostle Paul had been converted on the road to Damascus. The city of Antioch was located in Syria, and it was there that believers were first called Christians. For centuries, Syria had been a stronghold of Christian faith and culture. Yet within a few years of Muhammad's death, Muslim armies conquered the region. The conquest continued southward toward Jerusalem. At the time, Jerusalem was a Christian city governed by the Byzantine Empire. When Muslim forces arrived, Christian leaders negotiated terms of surrender. Rather than facing only the options of conversion or death, Christians were allowed a third choice. They could remain Christian but become dhimmis—protected yet subordinate non-Muslim subjects who paid taxes to their Muslim rulers and accepted second-class legal status. This arrangement became a recurring pattern throughout Islamic history. Christians and Jews were permitted to survive, but only under conditions of political and social inferiority.
The armies then advanced into Persia. The Persian Empire had been one of the great powers of the ancient world. It was the empire of Cyrus the Great, the empire familiar from the books of Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Yet years of warfare with Byzantium had left Persia weakened. Muslim armies swept through the region and shattered Persian resistance. The once-mighty empire collapsed. Although Persia adopted Islam, their civilization later exerted a moderating influence on Islamic culture because Persians possessed centuries of experience in administration, literature, science, and philosophy.
Meanwhile, another campaign targeted Egypt. At this point, Egypt had been overwhelmingly Christian for over six centuries. It had been evangelized according to tradition by Mark, the author of the Gospel of Mark. Long before Islam existed, Egypt contained thriving churches, monasteries, theologians, and Christian communities. Yet Egypt was divided internally. The Coptic Christians of Egypt often found themselves in conflict with the Byzantine authorities who governed them. Muslim leaders promised the Copts relief from Byzantine oppression. Muslim armies entered Egypt and successfully drove out Byzantine control. Once established, however, Islamic rule became permanent. Egypt gradually transformed from one of Christianity's strongest centers into one of Islam's most influential regions. However, the conquest did not stop there. Muslim armies continued westward across North Africa. That region had once contained hundreds of Christian bishoprics and some of the greatest figures in church history. Augustine of Hippo, one of Christianity's most influential theologians, had lived in North Africa. Entire regions that had been Christian for centuries now came under Muslim control. One reason for the rapid success of these conquests was that many Christians had adopted monastic ideals that emphasized withdrawal from political and military affairs. While devout believers pursued spiritual lives in monasteries and deserts, Muslim armies advanced with military discipline and determination.
The speed of Islamic expansion was unprecedented. Within approximately one hundred years of Muhammad's death, Muslim rule stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to India, in part its success due to important military innovations. One was the widespread use of the stirrup. Earlier horsemen often struggled to maintain stability while fighting. The stirrup gave riders greater control and allowed them to strike with far greater force. Another innovation was the curved Damascus steel scimitar. Through repeated folding and forging, these blades became exceptionally strong and sharp. Muslim cavalrymen could wield these swords effectively while riding at full speed, giving them a significant battlefield advantage.
As Muslim armies swept across North Africa, they eventually reached the Strait of Gibraltar. In 711 AD, a Muslim commander named Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed into Spain. The mountain where he landed became known as Jabal Tariq, meaning "Mountain of Tariq." Over time, that name evolved into Gibraltar. Spain at the time consisted of competing Visigothic Christian kingdoms. These kingdoms were divided by internal rivalries and political disputes. Muslim forces exploited these divisions: One kingdom would be attacked while neighboring kingdoms stood aside, then another would fall. Within approximately ten years, nearly all of Spain was under Muslim control.
The conquest did not stop at the Pyrenees Mountains. Muslim armies crossed into southern France and continued advancing northward. By 732 AD, only one hundred years after Muhammad's death, Islamic forces stood deep within Europe. Their advance was finally halted at the Battle of Tours by the Frankish leader Charles Martel. It was one of the most consequential battles in history because Martel positioned his forces on high ground and used disciplined infantry formations to withstand repeated cavalry attacks. During the battle, some of Martel's men reportedly raided the Muslim camp, freed captives, and looted. Many Muslim warriors left the battlefield to recover their possessions. Their commander, Abd al-Rahman, was killed while trying to restore order. Without unified leadership, the Muslim army withdrew back towards Spain.
Then, the Battle of Tours marked a turning point. Had the Muslim armies continued northward, the history of Europe might have been entirely different. Within a century of Muhammad's death, Islam had conquered Arabia, Syria, the Palestine region, Egypt, Persia, North Africa, and Spain, while also penetrating deep into France itself. The first century of Islam was, in his view, fundamentally characterized by military expansion. The early generations who carried out these conquests became examples for later Islamic movements in much the same way that Christians look to the Apostolic Age as a model for Christian faith and practice. So, by the end of this first phase of expansion, a new civilization had emerged. What began as a movement in the deserts of Arabia had become one of the largest empires in world history. Vast Christian territories had changed hands. Ancient centers of Christian theology now operated under Muslim rule. The balance of power across the Mediterranean world had been transformed. Yet the expansion was far from complete. The next centuries would bring battles for Constantinople, the rise of the great Islamic empires, the Crusades, the Ottoman advance into Europe, and some of the defining struggles between Christian and Muslim powers that would shape the course of world history for nearly a millennium.
Following the rapid expansion of Islam across the Middle East, North Africa, Persia, and Spain, the next great objective became the heart of the Christian world itself. Western Christianity held one city which stood above all others in importance: Constantinople. Founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine and serving as the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest Christian city in the world. It controlled trade routes between Europe and Asia and stood as the eastern bastion of Christian civilization. Muslim armies repeatedly attempted to capture it, recognizing that if Constantinople fell, much of the Christian world would lie exposed. The first major Muslim attempts against Constantinople occurred during the early centuries of Islamic expansion. The Byzantine defenders possessed a secret weapon known as Greek Fire. This incendiary substance could be launched against attacking ships and armies and was nearly impossible to extinguish. Repeated Islamic assaults were turned back by the city's formidable walls and the devastating effects of Greek Fire. For centuries, Constantinople survived as a Christian stronghold despite being surrounded by expanding Muslim territories. The Muslim conquests also produced another major consequence often overlooked in modern history. When Islamic forces conquered Egypt and North Africa, they effectively controlled much of the trade across the Mediterranean. One important commodity was papyrus, the primary source of writing material in the ancient world. With trade disrupted and access restricted, Europe experienced shortages that contributed to a decline in literary production. This disruption played a role in what later became known as the Dark Ages. The flow of information slowed, fewer books were produced, and intellectual life in Western Europe declined. Not many are very sure as to why this happened.
During this time is where we find the infamous destruction of the Library of Alexandria. The standard story given is that Muslim commanders asked Caliph Umar what should be done with the books. The caliph reportedly replied that if the books contradicted the Quran, they should be destroyed, and if they agreed with the Quran, they were unnecessary because the Quran already contained the truth. Whether this account is historically accurate remains debated among scholars, but this is an example of how Islamic conquests affected the preservation of ancient learning. The Muslim expansion continued across the Mediterranean. In 846 AD, Muslim raiders sailed up the Tiber River and attacked Rome itself. They plundered portions of the city, including sites associated with the apostles Peter and Paul. The shock of this attack prompted Pope Leo IV to construct massive defensive walls around the Vatican. Those walls still stand today as a reminder of a period when Muslim fleets threatened even the center of Western Christianity.
While the western Mediterranean experienced these attacks, Persia was transforming Islamic rule. The Arabs who had conquered Persia were largely desert tribesmen, while the Persians possessed centuries of experience in governance, scholarship, science, and philosophy. As Persian culture influenced the Islamic world, a more sophisticated civilization began to emerge. This period is often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age. We must look at the Abbasid Caliphate centered in Baghdad. Caliphs such as Harun al-Rashid presided over courts where scholars studied medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geography, and philosophy. Christian scholars, Jewish scholars, and even representatives of other religions participated in intellectual life. Baghdad became one of the greatest cities in the world…AKA Babylon.
For a time, it appeared that Islamic civilization might experience a Renaissance centuries before Europe. Scholars such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes explored medicine, science, philosophy, and classical learning. Intellectual flourishing was eventually challenged by Islamic theologians who feared that excessive interest in Greek philosophy would weaken commitment to Islam. One of the most influential was Al-Ghazali, known as a renewer of the faith. Al-Ghazali warned against excessive study of Greek philosophy and argued that Muslims should focus primarily on the Quran. This is in contrast to the Christian world, where figures such as Thomas Aquinas believed that truth could be found even in the writings of pagan philosophers.
Farther East, a new threat soon emerged from Central Asia. The Mongols under Genghis Khan swept across Eurasia, creating the largest contiguous empire in history. The Mongol invasions devastated much of the Islamic world. Baghdad, the jewel of the Abbasid Caliphate, was captured and destroyed in 1258. Its libraries were burned, its scholars killed, and its political power shattered. From this point onward, leadership within the Islamic world gradually shifted from the Arabs and Persians to the Turks.
Meanwhile, Christian Europe slowly began reclaiming territory lost centuries earlier. Spain, which had fallen to Muslim armies in the early eighth century, became the scene of a centuries-long struggle known as the Reconquista. Christian kingdoms gradually pushed southward, reclaiming territory piece by piece. This process lasted nearly seven hundred years. Figures such as El Cid were symbols of the Christian resistance. By 1492, the last Muslim kingdom in Spain had fallen, ending Islamic political control of the Iberian Peninsula.
As these developments unfolded, a new Turkish power arose in the east. The Seljuk Turks expanded aggressively into territories that had once been part of the Byzantine Empire. Many of the ancient Christian communities mentioned in the New Testament disappeared under Turkish rule. The seven churches of Revelation—Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea—were all located in regions increasingly dominated by Muslim powers.
There was one event in particular that helped trigger the Crusades. In 1009 AD, the Fatimid ruler Al-Hakim ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, one of Christianity's holiest sites. Reports of persecution, restrictions on Christian worship, and attacks on pilgrims spread throughout Europe. At the same time, Byzantine emperors desperately sought help against the advancing Turks. In 1095, Pope Urban II called upon Christian rulers to aid their fellow Christians in the East. This appeal launched the First Crusade.
Many believe the Crusades were primarily a defensive response to centuries of Islamic expansion rather than an unprovoked act of aggression. Over the next two centuries, nine major Crusades would be launched. Famous figures such as Richard I of England became symbols of the struggle. Although the Crusaders achieved temporary successes, the long-term balance of power continued to favor the Muslim world. Many of these wars also persecuted regional Jewish communities, taking on the war-like mentality that Islam had rendered to Western nations.
The greatest challenge to Christian Europe eventually came from the Ottoman Turks. As the Byzantine Empire weakened, the Ottomans steadily expanded. Internal political divisions further accelerated the empire's collapse. Rival Byzantine factions sometimes sought Turkish assistance against one another, unknowingly helping their future conquerors. In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II launched the final assault on Constantinople. Massive cannons battered the city's walls, and after centuries of resistance, the city finally fell. The largest church in Christendom, Hagia Sophia, was converted into a mosque. The fall of Constantinople had enormous consequences. Trade routes between Europe and Asia came under Muslim control. European merchants now sought alternative routes to India and China. The search for other routes eventually inspired explorers such as Christopher Columbus to seek western sea routes. Columbus's voyage in 1492, therefore, was indirectly connected to the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, as well as to the evasion of Ferdinand and Isabella’s forced national conversion edicts upon the Jewish people in Spain.
At the same time, Greek scholars fled westward carrying ancient manuscripts and classical learning. Their arrival in Italy helped spark the Renaissance. Scholars such as Desiderius Erasmus gained access to Greek manuscripts of the New Testament and began comparing them to the Latin Vulgate. These discoveries revealed translation differences and helped lay the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Many believe that without the fall of Constantinople, Europe's Renaissance and Reformation might have developed very differently. The Ottoman Empire continued advancing into Europe. In 1529 and again in 1683, Ottoman armies laid siege to Vienna. The second siege became one of the defining moments in European history. In September 1683, approximately 200,000 Ottoman troops surrounded the city. The defenders appeared doomed until relief forces led by the Polish King John III Sobieski arrived. Sobieski launched what is often considered the largest cavalry charge in history. The Ottoman army was routed, and the advance into Central Europe was halted. There were several incidents connected to the victory at Vienna. According to one story, the retreating Ottoman army left behind sacks of coffee beans. Europeans learned to brew the beverage, leading to the spread of coffeehouses throughout Europe. Another tradition holds that a baker who had helped detect Ottoman tunneling operations requested permission to create a pastry shaped like the Ottoman crescent moon. This pastry became known as the croissant. Whether these stories are entirely historical or partly legendary, they resounded as symbolic reminders of a decisive moment when Europe successfully resisted Ottoman expansion.
Throughout this period, many Protestant leaders interpreted the Ottoman threat through a biblical lens. Martin Luther viewed the Turkish invasions as divine judgment, calling Christians to repentance. John Calvin likewise warned of the danger posed by the Ottoman advance. Medieval theologians such as Thomas Aquinas had earlier contrasted Christianity and Islam by comparing the lives of Jesus and Muhammad. Interestingly, scholars began comparing these beliefs at this time.
By the late seventeenth century, however, the tide had begun to turn. The Ottoman advance had been checked. Spain had been reclaimed. Europe was entering an age of exploration, scientific discovery, and growing global influence. The centuries-long struggle between Christian and Islamic civilizations had fundamentally shaped the development of both worlds. The rise and fall of empires, the Crusades, the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the discovery of the New World all unfolded against the backdrop of this ongoing historical encounter.
Having traced the historical expansion of Islam from Arabia across the Middle East, North Africa, Persia, and Europe, let us turn to the internal divisions within Islam, the development of Sharia law, the contrast between Jesus and Muhammad, and what he believes are the fundamental theological differences between Christianity and Islam.
Following Muhammad's death in 632 AD, one of the first major questions facing the Islamic community was who should succeed him. Unlike later monarchies, there was no universally accepted process for determining leadership. This disagreement eventually produced the most significant division in the Islamic world. One group believed leadership should remain within Muhammad's family through his son-in-law Ali, who had married Muhammad's daughter Fatima. These followers became known as the Shiat Ali, or the Party of Ali, from which the term Shiite is derived. Another group believed leadership should pass to Muhammad's close companion and military associate, Abu Bakr, whose daughter Aisha had become one of Muhammad's wives. These followers became known as Sunnis, from the word Sunnah, meaning the way or example of Muhammad. Today, roughly eighty-five percent of Muslims identify as Sunni, while approximately fifteen percent identify as Shia, though these numbers vary somewhat by region.
The division deepened dramatically in 680 AD at the Battle of Karbala. Hussein, the son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad, was killed by forces aligned with the Sunni leadership. His death became the defining martyrdom event of Shiite Islam. This created the beginning of a blood feud that has continued in various forms for over thirteen centuries. The conflict between Sunni and Shia Muslims has influenced political and military events throughout Islamic history and remains a major factor in Middle Eastern affairs today.
Shiite theology developed in Persia initially, which we all know is modern Iran. Within Twelver Shiism, which became the dominant form of Shiite Islam in Iran, a succession of twelve descendants of Muhammad is recognized. According to this belief system, the twelfth Imam disappeared as a child in the ninth century and entered what is known as the Occultation. Twelver Shiites believe he remains alive and hidden and will one day return. This expectation of the return of the hidden Imam plays a major role in the eschatology of certain Iranian religious leaders. According to this belief, the hidden Imam will emerge during a time of global crisis and establish Islamic rule throughout the world. Even in modern Islam, we see some radical factions that view global conflict as needed and a means of hastening the arrival of the hidden Imam.
Turning from history to law and doctrine, Islam began to develop a comprehensive legal system known as Sharia. Unlike Christianity, which primarily focuses on individual salvation and spiritual transformation, Sharia attempts to regulate every aspect of personal, social, economic, and political life. Sharia emerged from four principal sources. The first is the Quran itself. The second is the Hadith, the collected sayings and actions attributed to Muhammad. The third is the Sirah, the biographies of Muhammad, and the fourth is the accumulated legal rulings, or fatwas, developed over centuries by Islamic scholars.
The Quran contains two broad categories of verses corresponding to the two major periods of Muhammad's life. The earlier Meccan verses were received while Muhammad functioned primarily as a religious teacher. These verses tend to emphasize patience, endurance, and persuasion. The later Medinan verses were received after Muhammad became a political ruler and military commander. These verses often address warfare, governance, treaties, and legal matters. According to traditional Islamic jurisprudence, later revelations can supersede earlier ones through a principle known as abrogation. This distinction is crucial to understanding Islamic law and practice.
The Hadith, meanwhile, consists of thousands of reports preserved by later generations. These reports describe Muhammad's actions, judgments, habits, and decisions. Because Muslims seek to imitate Muhammad's example, these accounts become extremely important in determining what is permitted and forbidden. What Muhammad permitted is known as halal. What Muhammad prohibited is known as haram. As a result, Islamic law governs everything from food and clothing to marriage, inheritance, commerce, and criminal justice.
Sharia is fundamentally different from Western legal traditions. There are huge contrasts in constitutional principles, such as equal treatment under law, with various traditional Sharia rulings regarding testimony, inheritance, polygamy, and criminal punishments. Examples range from the amputation of a thief's hand, the allowance of multiple wives, and legal distinctions between male and female testimony. What we must see is that in Islam, a tremendous change has occurred. Sharia at this point represented not merely a religious system but an alternative social and political order. This brings us to the central comparison between Christianity and Islam: the comparison between Jesus and Muhammad themselves. Christianity and Islam represent radically different models of leadership and spirituality. Jesus never commanded armies, never led military campaigns, never held political office, never owned slaves, never married, and never used force to compel belief. When people rejected His message, He allowed them to leave. When He was arrested, He rebuked those who attempted to defend Him with violence. His teachings emphasized loving enemies, forgiving persecutors, and praying for those who mistreated believers.
Muhammad, however, lived a very different kind of life. He served simultaneously as prophet, ruler, judge, military commander, and lawgiver. He led armies, participated in battles, administered political authority, entered into treaties, and established legal regulations governing society. Because Muslims seek to imitate Muhammad just as Christians seek to imitate Jesus, means that the examples set by these two men naturally produce very different outcomes. The Bible teaches salvation through grace through faith. Christians do not believe they earn heaven through their own works. Rather, they trust in the finished work of Jesus Christ on the cross. Good works are viewed as the fruit of salvation rather than the means of obtaining it. By contrast, Islam is fundamentally works-oriented. Muslims seek to obey Allah, follow Muhammad's example, and accumulate sufficient merit to enter paradise. Even Muhammad himself reportedly expressed uncertainty regarding his final destiny. Therefore, the faithful Muslim strives continually to earn favor through obedience and submission.
This continued principle appears at Passover. Each Israelite household was required to sacrifice a lamb and place its blood on the doorposts. The blood signified that judgment had already fallen on a substitute. The angel of death would pass over that house because the lamb had taken the judgment in place of the firstborn. This is traced through the Tabernacle, the Temple sacrifices, the ministry of the prophets, and finally to John the Baptist's declaration: "Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world." This is the ultimate difference between Christianity and every system based upon human effort. Christianity teaches that God's justice required judgment for sin, but God's love provided a substitute. Jesus became the Lamb who bore that judgment. Salvation therefore comes not through personal achievement but through trusting in the sacrifice God Himself provided.
As we have seen throughout Islamic history, various radical movements have emerged that viewed themselves as the sole guardians of religious truth while condemning fellow Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Some were short-lived rebellions, others built states, and a few left legacies that continue to influence modern extremist movements. Though separated by centuries, many shared common characteristics: uncompromising interpretations of religion, claims of exclusive righteousness, willingness to use violence against perceived enemies, and ambitions to reshape society according to their vision of divine rule.
A recurring theme throughout this history was that most people do not arrive at religious belief through careful examination of evidence. Instead, belief systems are usually inherited long before an individual possesses the intellectual tools necessary to evaluate them. Continued in comments:
