Microbe Notes

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Microbe Notes

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Microbe Notes is an educational niche blog/website related to microbiology (bacteriology, virology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, molecular biology, biochemistry, etc.) Microbe Notes was created on 2018-07-20 with the aim to provide study notes to undergraduate and graduate students especially useful during exams. This website is also useful for A-level biology, AP biology, IB biology, and other university-level biology and microbiology courses (B.Sc, M.Sc., M.Phil., and Ph.D.).

15/08/2026

Candida species on CHROMagar.

Photo by: Medical laboratory assistants from the Department of Microbiology at the Medical University of Pleven.

13/08/2026

This diagram illustrates how water travels through the xylem, enters mesophyll cells, evaporates into air spaces, and exits through stomata regulated by guard cells.

06/08/2026

DNA isolation from animal cells is a fundamental molecular biology technique used for genetic analysis, sequencing, PCR, cloning, and diagnostic applications.

The workflow includes sample preparation, cell lysis, RNA removal, protein digestion or precipitation, DNA separation through alcohol precipitation or silica columns, washing, and final elution to obtain high-quality purified DNA.

01/08/2026

Hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumoniae (hvKp) on LIM (Lysine, Indole, Motility) Medium.
Photo By- .

25/07/2026

Cultural characteristics of actinomycetes on AIA agar plates showing the variations in morphology and pigments.

(A) Amycolatopsis sp., (B) Arthrobacter sp., (C) Kitasatospora sp., (D) Nocardia sp., (E) Nocardia sp., (F) Nocardioides sp., (G) Nocardiopsis sp., (H) Promicromonospora sp., (I) Rodococcus sp., (J) Streptomyces sp., (K) Streptomyces sp., (L) Streptomyces sp.

Full Paper: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-09357-5

22/07/2026

CAR T cell therapy is a groundbreaking form of cancer immunotherapy that uses a patient's own T cells to recognize and destroy cancer cells.

The process begins by collecting T cells from blood, genetically modifying them to express chimeric antigen receptors (CARs), expanding them in the laboratory, and infusing them back into the patient. These engineered cells specifically target cancer cells and trigger their destruction.

CAR T cell therapy has transformed the treatment of several blood cancers and continues to advance through ongoing research, offering new hope for patients with difficult-to-treat malignancies and improving the future of precision medicine.

19/07/2026

The TRIzol method is one of the most widely used techniques for isolating high-quality RNA from cells and tissues. TRIzol reagent rapidly lyses cells, inactivates RNases, and preserves RNA integrity.

Following chloroform extraction, the RNA remains in the aqueous phase, where it is precipitated with isopropanol, washed with 75% ethanol, air-dried, and resuspended in RNase-free water.

The purified RNA is suitable for RT-PCR, qRT-PCR, RNA sequencing, transcriptomics, Northern blotting, and other gene expression studies, making the TRIzol method a gold standard for molecular biology and biomedical research.

18/07/2026

The human visual system transforms light into meaningful images through a highly organized neural pathway.

Each eye captures part of both visual fields, and the overlap of the two visual fields provides depth perception.

At the optic chiasm, nasal retinal fibers cross while temporal fibers remain on the same side, allowing visual information from the left visual field to reach the right visual cortex and vice versa.

This precise organization enables accurate visual processing, spatial awareness, and coordination.

Understanding the visual pathway is essential for studying neuroanatomy, ophthalmology, and neurological disorders affecting vision.

16/07/2026

The phenol-chloroform method is a classic DNA extraction technique that produces high-quality, high-molecular-weight DNA for demanding molecular biology applications.

Cells are lysed, proteins are digested with Proteinase K, and contaminants are removed using phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol extraction.

DNA is then precipitated with sodium acetate and ethanol, washed with 70% ethanol, air-dried, and resuspended in TE buffer or nuclease-free water.

Although this method is labor-intensive and requires careful handling of hazardous chemicals, it remains a trusted protocol for sequencing, cloning, Southern blotting, and other applications requiring highly purified DNA.

14/07/2026

The spin column-based method is one of the most widely used DNA extraction techniques in molecular biology due to its speed, reliability, and high DNA purity.

Cells are lysed, proteins are digested with Proteinase K, and DNA binds selectively to a silica membrane under high-salt conditions. After multiple wash steps to remove proteins, salts, and contaminants, purified DNA is eluted using nuclease-free water or elution buffer.

The extracted DNA is ideal for PCR, sequencing, cloning, qPCR, and other downstream applications, making this method the gold standard in research, clinical, and diagnostic laboratories.

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