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Umkhonto we Afrika, 19 Kamannassie Street, Alberton (2026)

09/04/2026

Homie if i go to hell and you make it to heaven just get me to the gate I hustle my way in, s**t I hustle my way out the hood.

08/03/2026

Convair B-58 Hustler.

The Convair B-58 Hustler is a supersonic strategic bomber, the first capable of Mach 2 flight.Designed and produced by American aircraft manufacturer Convair, a division of General Dynamics, the B-58 was developed during the 1950s for the United States Air Force (USAF) Strategic Air Command (SAC).

16/10/2025

Colonial Nigeria.

Colonial Nigeria formed part of the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1 October 1960, when Nigeria achieved independence.Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 Berlin Conference.

From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the Royal Niger Company, authorised by charter, and governed by George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after World War II provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which Nigeria gained its independence.

Overview:

Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed Crown Colony government on much of the area of West Africa which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both autocratic and bureaucratic. After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in London and in Nigeria.

Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a money economy—specifically the British pound sterling—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.

The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in Nigeria to the present day.

08/10/2025

Harbin SH-5.

The Harbin SH-5 (Chinese: 水轰五型; pinyin: Shuǐhōng wǔxíng; lit. 'water bomb type 5', where "水轰" is short for 水上轰炸机; Shuǐshàng hōngzhàjī; 'seaborne bomber') is a Chinese maritime patrol amphibious aircraft intended for a wide range of duties, including aerial firefighting, anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and air-sea rescue (ASR). One prototype and six production aircraft have been built.

Design and development:

Research to build a seaplane capable of replacing Beriev Be-6s in service was initiated by the PLANAF in 1968, with designers reassigned from "Objective 3/17", a supersonic canard-wing fighter project. The first prototype flew in 1976; further units were delivered between 1986 and 1990.

Variants:

SH-5B Firefighter.

One SH-5 was rebuilt for firefighting duties.

However, by a Chinese source, there were total of 7 SH-5 were produced: 3 SH-5X Prototype, 3 Maritime patrol aircraft, and 1 SH-B Firefighter.

08/10/2025

Grumman S-2 Tracker.

The Grumman S-2 Tracker (S2F prior to 1962) is the first purpose-built, single airframe anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft to enter service with the United States Navy. Designed and initially built by Grumman, the Tracker was of conventional design — propeller-driven with twin radial engines, a high wing that could be folded for storage on aircraft carriers, and tricycle undercarriage. The type was exported to a number of navies around the world. Introduced in 1952, the Tracker and its E-1 Tracer derivative saw service in the U.S. Navy until the mid-1970s, and its C-1 Trader derivative until the mid-1980s, with a few aircraft remaining in service with other air arms into the 21st century. Argentina is the last country to still operate the Tracker.

Design and development:

The Tracker was intended as a replacement for the Grumman AF Guardian,which was the first purpose-built aircraft system for anti-submarine warfare. The Guardian operated in two aircraft "hunter-killer" pairs, with one aircraft (the AF2-W) carrying the detection gear to find the submarine and to direct the second aircraft, the AF-2S, which carried weapons to attack and destroy the submarine.The Tracker combined both functions in one aircraft, saving deck space aboard carriers and making for more efficient operations.Grumman's design (model G-89) was for a large high-wing monoplane with twin Wright Cyclone R-1820 nine cylinder radial engines, a yoke type arrestor hook and a crew of four. Both the two XS2F-1 prototypes and 15 S2F-1 production aircraft were ordered at the same time, on 30 June 1950. The first flight was conducted on 4 December 1952, and production aircraft entered service with VS-26, in February 1954.

Follow-on versions included the WF Tracer and TF Trader, which became the Grumman E-1 Tracer and Grumman C-1 Trader in the tri-service designation standardization of 1962. The S-2 carried the nickname "Stoof" (S-two-F) throughout its military career; and the E-1 Tracer variant with the large overhead radome was colloquially called the "stoof with a roof.".

Grumman produced 1,185 Trackers and another 99 aircraft carrying the CS2F designation were manufactured in Canada under license by de Havilland Canada. U.S.-built versions of the Tracker were sold to various nations, including Australia, Japan, Turkey and Taiwan.

07/10/2025

Skull Island (King Kong).

Skull Island is a fictional island in the 1933 film King Kong and its sequels, remakes, and other King Kong stories. It is the home of King Kong and several other species of creatures, mostly prehistoric and in some cases species that should have been extinct long before the rise of the mammals, along with a primitive society of humans.

In the 1962 King Kong vs. Godzilla and the 1967 King Kong Escapes, the corresponding islands are Faro Island and Mondo Island. Kong plays a similar role in these islands as the god-like being of the land, a role he plays in all versions of the King Kong story. Skull Island's origins are unknown, but Kong appears to be the only giant gorilla on the island. However, the 2005 remake shows skeletons of Kong-sized gorillas, indicating that there was once a group of many such creatures on the island. Additionally, 2017's Kong: Skull Island shows the skeletons of Kong's parents.

Island Wildlife:

Besides King Kong and the natives, much of the wildlife on Skull Island consists of many kinds of prehistoric animals from each different era, such as dinosaurs. However, some of them are fictional descendants of real animals.

Appearing in King Kong and The Son of Kong:

Stegosaurus – A Stegosaurus appears in a sequence in which it is disturbed by Carl Denham's crew. It charges the men and they fell it with a gas-bomb. As they walk by, it starts to get up again and is shot. Orville Goldner, who worked on the film, described the film's Stegosaur as a combination of two genera: Stegosaurus ungulatus and the less well-known Kentrosaurus.Another appeared in a deleted scene when Denham ran back to the village, after Kong's battle with the Tyrannosaurus.

Brontosaurus – A Brontosaurus is disturbed by the rescue party's raft as it crosses a swamp and capsizes it, attacking the men in the water. Several of them are chased onto land, and one fellow is cornered while climbing a tree and maimed to death by the animal. A common misconception is that the sauropod actually eats the sailor, but it is stated in the script and observed in the film that the dinosaur kills and then abandons the body of a sailor identified as "Tim". The creature reappears in Son of Kong, crying out as the island is sinking.

A large two-legged "lizard" – This unidentified reptilian creature climbs up a vine from the crevasse to attack Jack Driscoll. It falls back into the pit when Jack cuts the vine it is climbing. Other than the two limbs, the other distinct feature of this creature is the iguana-like ridge of spikes down its back. Orville Goldner said that it was loosely based on the features of the Desmatosuchus.In Peter Jackson's re-creation of the "spider pit sequence", it is among the monsters eating the sailors who survived the fall. This creature would inspire the Monsterverse's Skullcrawlers.

Tyrannosaurus – A great carnivorous dinosaur that tries to eat Ann, but is fought and killed (or, at least, overpowered) by Kong, who breaks its jaw open. The dinosaur was modeled after Charles R. Knight's depiction of a Tyrannosaurus,but it possesses three fingers per hand, unlike Tyrannosaurus, which had only two (the number of fingers in Tyrannosaurus was disputed at the time, as a complete manus was not discovered until the mid-1990s). In the documentary I'm King Kong! The Exploits of Merian C. Cooper, included on the 2-disc DVD release of King Kong, Cooper refers to this beast as an Allosaurus, not a Tyrannosaurus, which would help explain the number of fingers. The creature was originally intended to be a Tyrannosaurus designed for the canceled Willis O'Brien film Creation (1931). It may also be worth noting that the Tyrannosaurus present in Willis O'Brien's earlier project The Lost World (1925) also had a third finger. The 1932 King Kong screenplay refers to the dinosaur only as a "Meat Eater".

Tanystropheus – A highly stylized, serpentine aquatic reptile with a long neck and tail as well as two pairs of flippers. It inhabits the bubbling swamp area inside King Kong's cave. Goldner describes the Tanystropheus as being designed as more slender than the ones known to science, and its swimming limbs are less prominent. It battles Kong in the style of a giant, constricting snake.

Archaeopteryx – The tiny birds are seen flying around in the jungle. Most notably a few fly by when the Stegosaurus enters the clearing, and one flies out of the dead tree that Kong puts Ann in before he goes to fight the sailors on the log bridge. According to Goldner, they "were made to flit among the trees on invisible wires".

Arsinoitherium – This huge prehistoric mammal was to chase the men onto the log bridge and corner them between itself and the enraged Kong in the test reel. According to Goldner, Cooper had second thoughts about the Arsinotherium and "ordered the action to be re-filmed using a Styracosaurus. Both versions were eventually thrown out because they captured too much audience attention". This can be attested to by the fact that the sailors did not just run back across the log when Kong appeared.

Gigantophis garstini – According to Goldner, "this huge snake that appeared in one scene and later cut out of the film, had its living prototype in Egypt". This giant snake frightens Ann at the base of the dead tree that Kong puts her in before he battles the sailors on the log bridge. It was in the test reel, but later cut. However, Ann Darrow's reaction to it being below her just before the Tyrannosaurus shows up in the clearing remains in the film.

Erythrosuchus – It was created and then re-created for the "spider-pit sequence" and portrayed as a stout reptilian predator. Goldner stated that it was loosely adapted, as many of the creatures of the pit were imaginative.

06/10/2025

FMA IA 58 Pucará.

The FMA IA 58 Pucará (Quechua: Fortress) is an Argentine ground-attack and counter-insurgency (COIN) aircraft manufactured by the Fábrica Militar de Aviones. It is a low-wing twin-turboprop all-metal monoplane with retractable landing gear, capable of operating from unprepared strips when operationally required. The type saw action during the Falklands War and the Sri Lankan Civil War.

Development:

In August 1966 the Argentine state aircraft factory, Dirección Nacional de Fabricación e Investigación Aeronáutica (DINFIA), began development of the AX-2, a Counter-insurgency (COIN) aircraft to meet a requirement of the Argentine Air Force. The project was promoted by engineer Ricardo Olmedo and became under the guidance of engineer Aníbal Dreidemie, who also designed the IA-52 Guaraní II and the IA-63 Pampa. The chosen layout was a low-wing monoplane powered by two turboprop engines mounted in wing-mounted nacelles and fitted with a T-tail. In order to test the proposed layout, DINFIA first built a full-scale unpowered glider test vehicle, which flew for the first time on 26 December 1967.

Testing of the glider showed no major handling problems, and in September 1968, construction began on a powered prototype, given the designation FMA IA 58 Delfín, but later renamed Pucará, to be powered by a pair of 674 kilowatts (904 hp) Garrett TPE331I/U-303 engines. (DINFIA had been renamed the Fábrica Militar de Aviones (FMA) earlier that year).The first prototype made its maiden flight on 20 August 1969, with a second prototype, with power switching to 729 kW (978 shp) Turbomeca Astazou XVIGs, following on 6 September 1970.The first prototype was later re-engined with the Astazou, this engine being chosen for the production version, and a third production prototype followed in 1973.The first production model flew on 8 November 1974, with deliveries beginning in early 1976.

At least three projects were related to the IA-58 development. The first was an extended Pucará airframe with pressurized cabin for six passengers, equipped with Astafan turbofan engines for light transport and photography duties. The second was an observation and reconnaissance aircraft having the same configuration as the Fairchild-Republic A-10. The third was denominated IA-60 and was an advanced trainer and light attack platform powered by two Astafans conserving the basic airframe and canopy of the Pucará with T-tail incorporating high wings. Some tests were made on wind tunnels but no further development was made in order to proceed with the IA-63 Pampa program.

Design:

The IA 58 Pucará is of conventional, all-metal (mainly duralumin) construction. The unswept cantilever wings have 7 degrees of dihedral on the outer panels and are fitted with slotted trailing-edge flaps. The IA-58 has a slender fuselage, with a tandem cockpit arrangement; the crew of two is seated under the upward opening clamshell canopy on Martin-Baker Mk 6AP6A zero/zero ejection seats and are provided with dual controls and good visibility, at least in the lateral and front quarters. The clean aerodynamic design allows the Pucará to reach relatively high speed, higher than the American OV-10 Bronco, another COIN aircraft. On the other hand, the IA 58 has no cargo bay inside the fuselage as requested for the American aircraft.

Armour plating is fitted to protect the crew and engines from ground fire.The aircraft is powered by a pair of Turbomeca Astazou engines, driving sets of three-bladed Ratier-Forest 23LF propellers;the propellers are also capable of being used as air brakes.The Pucará was designed for operations from short, rough airstrips.The retractable tricycle landing gear, with a single nosewheel and twin mainwheels retracting into the engine nacelles, is fitted with low pressure tyres to suit operations on rough ground, while the undercarriage legs are tall to give good clearance for underslung weapons loads.Three JATO rockets can be fitted under the fuselage to allow extra short takeoffs.Fuel is fed from two fuselage tanks of combined capacity of 800 L (180 imp gal; 210 US gal) and two self-sealing tanks of 460 L (100 imp gal; 120 US gal) in the wings. The undercarriage, flaps and brakes are operated hydraulically, with no pneumatic systems.The spring suspension system is like the one used in the Junkers Ju 88, while the tail has a T configuration to improve take-off.

Fixed armament of the Pucará is similar to that of many WWII era aircraft. It consists of two Hispano 804 20 mm cannons mounted under the cockpit with 270 rounds each and four 7.62 mm Browning FN machine guns mounted on the sides of the fuselage with 900 rounds each. Three hardpoints are fitted for carrying external stores single or in clusters (as example up to six bombs under the fuselage or two rockets under each wing) such as bombs, rockets or external fuel tanks, with one of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) capacity mounted under the fuselage and the remaining two, of 500 kg (1,100 lb) capacity beneath the wings. Maximum external weapons load is 1,620 kg (3,570 lb).Onboard armaments are aimed by a simple reflector sight.

06/10/2025

Fairey Gannet.

The Fairey Gannet is a carrier-borne aircraft that was designed and produced by the British aircraft manufacturer the Fairey Aviation Company. It was developed for the Royal Navy, being the first fixed-wing aircraft to combine both the search and strike portions of anti-submarine warfare (ASW) operations to be operated by the Fleet Air Arm (FAA).

The Gannet was originally developed to meet a Second World War era requirement for a dual-role ASW and strike to equip the FAA.It was a mid-wing monoplane with a tricycle undercarriage and a crew of three, with a double turboprop engine driving two counter-rotating propellers. On 19 September 1949, the prototype Gannet performed its maiden flight. Four years later, it was brought into regular service with the FAA. The service would use the type from the majority of its aircraft carriers throughout the Cold War. Various export customers were also secured for the Gannet, including the Royal Australian Navy, the German Navy, and the Indonesian Navy, most of these operating the aircraft exclusively from land bases.

During the 1960s, the Royal Navy transitioned to using helicopters, such as the Westland Whirlwind HAS.7, for ASW operations. Accordingly, several Gannets were adapted to perform alternative operations, such as an airborne electronic countermeasures platform and carrier onboard delivery aircraft. Perhaps the most extensive variant of the type was the Gannet AEW.3, which was developed as a carrier-based airborne early warning platform and was operated exclusively by the FAA. The service disposed of its Gannets on 15 December 1978, roughly aligning with the withdrawal of the last of the Royal Navy's large fleet carriers.

Design and development:
Background.

According to the aviation historian H. A. Taylor, the origins of what would become the Gannet can be traced back to 1935, when the Fairey Aviation Company started development of the unsuccessful Fairey Prince that used an unusual twin-engine arrangement.Formal design work on the Gannet commenced in response to the issuing of requirement GR.17/45 in 1945, under which the Admiralty sought a new twin-seat aircraft capable of performing both anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and strike missions.Two rival aircraft manufacturers, Fairey and Blackburn Aircraft, opted to produce responses. Fairey's submission was known as the Type Q or Fairey 17 (these designations being sources from the naming of the requirement), while Blackburn's was the Blackburn B-54 / B-88.

For 18 months, Fairey investigated the use of a single Rolls-Royce Tweed turboprop engine to power their proposed aircraft, however, this option was discontinued to concentrate on other efforts.Instead, Fairey approached the engine manufacturer Armstrong Siddeley to develop a new engine based on the existing Armstrong Siddeley Mamba turboprop: the Double Mamba (otherwise known as the "Twin Mamba").This engine basically comprised a pair of Mamba engines that were mounted side-by-side and sharing a common gearbox. The proposal was enthusiastically accepted and formal design work on the engine stated in December 1945.

The acceptance of this proposal enabled Fairey to develop a rather atypical propulsion arrangement for their proposed aircraft, which was normally only possible for a single engined aircraft.Via the use of a pair of coaxial contra-rotating propellers fitted on the nose of the aircraft, various advantages were presented over conventional twin-engine counterparts; one engine could be shut down and its propellers feathered without producing asymmetry and therefore control difficulties. Shutting down one of the two engines in flight would reduce fuel consumption and extend the aircraft's range.

On 12 August 1946, Fairey was awarded an initial contract to produce two prototypes; Blackburn also received a competing contract to build its own prototypes.One reason for the ordering of multiple prototypes was so that alternative engines, such as the Napier Nomad, could be test flown, although some of these alternatives would never actually be fitted. Another reason was the relatively radical engine arrangement and the high proportion of original design features incorporated into the aircraft.

The Fairey Gannet is a carrier-borne turboprop-powered aircraft. It was typically operated by a crew of three, a pilot and two aerial observers. The pilot was seated directly above the aircraft's Double Mamba engine and behind the gearbox and contrarotating propellers in a position that conferred a favourable view over the nose for carrier operations.The first observer was seated underneath a separate canopy that was directly aft of the pilot's position. On the production aircraft, a second observer was also present in their own cockpit that was located over the wing trailing edge. This addition disturbed the airflow over the horizontal stabiliser, necessitating the addition of small finlets on either side.

The wing of the Gannet folded in two places, forming a distinctive Z-shape on each side, to minimise its space requirements while being stowed onboard aircraft carriers. The first fold was upwards, at about a third of the wing span where the inboard anhedral (down-sweep) changed to the outboard dihedral (up-sweep) of the wing (described as an inverted gull wing). The second wing fold was downward, at about two-thirds of the wing span.The length of the nosewheel shock absorber caused the Gannet to have a distinctive nose-high attitude, which was a common characteristic of carrier aircraft of the era.

03/10/2025

Douglas B-18 Bolo.

The Douglas B-18 Bolo is an American twin-engined medium bomber which served with the United States Army Air Corps and the Royal Canadian Air Force (as the Digby) during the late 1930s and early 1940s. The Bolo was developed by the Douglas Aircraft Company from their DC-2 as a replacement for the Martin B-10.

By 1940 standards, it was slow, had an inadequate defensive armament, and carried too small a bomb load. By 1942, surviving B-18s were relegated to antisubmarine, training and transport duties. A B-18 was one of the first USAAF aircraft to sink a German U-boat, U-654 on 22 August 1942 in the Caribbean.

Design and development:

In 1934, the United States Army Air Corps requested for a twin-engine bomber with double the bomb load and range of the Martin B-10 then entering service. During the evaluation at Wright Field the following year, Douglas offered its DB-1. It was competing against the Boeing Model 299 (later developed into the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress) and Martin 146.

While the Boeing design was clearly superior, the 299's four engines eliminated it from consideration despite being the favorite, and the crash of the prototype — caused by taking off with the controls still locked — put its purchase on hold. The Martin 146 was a minor improvement on the B-10, and was never seriously considered. During the depths of the Great Depression, the lower price of the DB-1 at $58,500 compared to $99,620 for the Model 299 also favored the Douglas entry, and it was ordered into immediate production in January 1936 as the B-18.

The DB-1 design was modified from that of the DC-2. The wingspan was 4.5 ft (1.4 m) greater, the fuselage was narrower and deeper, and the wings were moved up to a mid-wing position to allow space under the spars for an enclosed bomb bay. Added armament included manually operated nose, dorsal, and ventral gun turrets.

At one point, Preston Tucker's firm received a contract to supply Tucker remote controlled gun turrets but these were unsuccessful, and were never used in service.

02/10/2025

Douglas B-66 Destroyer.

The Douglas B-66 Destroyer is a light bomber that was designed and produced by the American aviation manufacturer Douglas Aircraft Company.

The B-66 was developed for the United States Air Force (USAF) and is derivative of the United States Navy's A-3 Skywarrior, a heavy carrier-based attack aircraft. Officials intended for the aircraft to be a simple development of the earlier A-3, taking advantage of being strictly land-based to dispense with unnecessary naval features. Due to the USAF producing extensive and substantially divergent requirements, it became necessary to make considerable alterations to the design, leading to a substantial proportion of the B-66 being original. The B-66 retained the three-man crew arrangement of the US Navy's A-3; differences included the incorporation of ejection seats, which the A-3 had lacked.

Performing its maiden flight on 28 June 1954, the aircraft was introduced to USAF service during 1956. The standard model, designated B-66, was a bomber model that was procured to replace the aging Douglas A-26 Invader; in parallel, a photo reconnaissance model, the RB-66, was also produced alongside. Further variants of the type were developed, leading to the aircraft's use in signals intelligence, electronic countermeasures, radio relay, and weather reconnaissance operations.

Aircraft were commonly forward deployed to bases in Europe, where they could more easily approach the airspace of the Soviet Union. Multiple variants were deployed around Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis. They flew in the Vietnam War, typically operating as support aircraft for other aircraft that were active over the skies of North Vietnam and Laos, as well as missions to map SAM and AAA sites in both countries. The last examples of the type were withdrawn from service in 1975.

Design and development:

Background.

When the A-3 Skywarrior was in development for United States Navy, the project attracted attention from senior officers of the United States Air Force (USAF), who were skeptical regarding claims made about the design's specifications and capabilities. In particular, the USAF questioned its reported take-off weight of 68,000lb, suggesting that it would be impossible to achieve.USAF general Hoyt Vandenberg ridiculed the proposed A-3 as "making irresponsible claims".It has been suggested that this was a part of opposition within the USAF to the Navy's proposed "supercarriers": the United States-class, which would have carried the A-3, amongst other aircraft.

While the supercarrier project did not proceed,flight testing of the A-3 validated its performance. It was recognized that the type was capable of carrying out mission profiles practically identical to that of the much larger Boeing B-47 Stratojet, operated by the USAF. This included an unrefuelled combat radius of almost 1,000 miles. This performance, coupled with the fact of development costs having already been paid by the Navy, as well as pressing needs highlighted by the Korean War, made the A-3 attractive to the USAF.Consequently, during the early 1950s, the USAF began to express interest in procuring a land-based variant.

02/10/2025

Douglas A-3 Skywarrior.

The Douglas A-3 Skywarrior is a jet-powered strategic bomber that was developed and produced by the Douglas Aircraft Company. It was designed by Douglas on behalf of the United States Navy, which sought a carrier-capable strategic bomber. In July 1949, Douglas was awarded the contract to produce its design, having bested eight other aircraft companies' submissions. Unlike rival designs, which had aimed for a 100,000 lb (45,000 kg) maximum take-off weight, the Skywarrior was developed for a 68,000 lb (31,000 kg) take-off weight, facilitating its use from the navy's existing Midway-class aircraft carriers. Large portions of the aircraft were produced by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, including its early Westinghouse J40 turbojet engines, which failed to meet promises and were replaced by the rival Pratt & Whitney J57 engine by mid-1953. On 28 October 1952, the prototype XA3D-1 performed the type's maiden flight.

On 31 March 1956, the Skywarrior entered squadron service with the Navy. Initially used in the nuclear-armed strategic bomber role, the emergence of effective ballistic missiles led to this mission being deprioritized by the early 1960s. Throughout the majority of its later service life, the Skywarrior was tasked with various secondary missions which included use as an electronic warfare platform, tactical reconnaissance aircraft, and high-capacity aerial refueling tanker.It was among the longest serving carrier-based aircraft in history, having entered service during the mid-1950s and withdrawn from use in 1991. Throughout its service, the Skywarrior was the heaviest operational aircraft to operate from an aircraft carrier,which contributed to its nickname of "Whale".

The Skywarrior is one of only three U.S. Navy attack aircraft to enter service in the strategic bomber role. The first was its predecessor, the North American AJ Savage. Its successor, the supersonic North American A-5 Vigilante initially supplanted the A-3 in the strategic bomber role (1961-1963) but was then converted to the tactical strike reconnaissance role.

A modified derivative of the Skywarrior, the B-66 Destroyer, served in the United States Air Force, where it was operated as a tactical bomber, electronic warfare aircraft, and aerial reconnaissance platform up until its withdrawal during the 1970s.

Design and development:

Background.

During World War II, the United States Navy (USN) began to explore the concept of operating jet-powered aircraft from its aircraft carriers. Success encouraged further development of the concept; early in the post-war years, officials within the USN began to investigate the use of jet power as a potential means of operating larger carrier-based aircraft that would be capable of performing the strategic bombing mission. The USN had a growing awareness that it could operate in a broader role than had been previously possible, and that the strategic bomber fleet operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) was unable to reach large parts of the world, a lesser limitation to forward deployed USN aircraft carrier groups and their air wings.

In January 1948, the Chief of Naval Operations issued a requirement to develop a long-range, carrier-based attack plane that could deliver either a 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb load or a nuclear weapon.The envisioned aircraft was intended to be operated from the planned United States-class "supercarriers," which were significantly larger than the USN's existing carriers, thus the specification set a target loaded weight of 100,000 lb (45,000 kg). Additionally, the USN sought for this bomber to possess greater speed and range than its existing North American AJ Savage fleet.A total of eight aircraft manufacturers produced responses to the specification, but all except Douglas Aircraft Company and Curtiss-Wright would drop out, declaring that there was no means that the requirements could be met within the 100,000 lb weight limitation.Uncertainty over the performance and requirements of both engines and bombs were major contributing factors towards this climate of negativity.

Ed Heinemann, Douglas' chief designer, later to win fame for the A-4 Skyhawk, fearing that the United States class was vulnerable to cancellation, proposed a significantly smaller aircraft of 68,000 lb (31,000 kg) loaded weight, capable of operating from the USN's existing carriers.Heinemann had reasoned (correctly) that as technology developed, the size and weight of nuclear weapons would substantially decrease, which increased the rationale for designing a more compact bomber.However, figures such as USAF general Hoyt Vandenberg ridiculed Heinemann's proposal as "making irresponsible claims".During this period, the USN and USAF were vigorous rivals, each seeking to maintain funding for its projects at the expense of the other in a time marked by drastically declining defense budgets; specifically, USAF officials frequently voiced their open opposition to the construction of the United States-class carriers.

The Skywarrior had a 36° degree swept wing and two Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet engines. Early prototypes had used the intended Westinghouse J40, a powerplant that proved to be disastrous and was subsequently canceled. The turbojets could be supplemented by a provision for twelve 4,500 lbf (20 kN) thrust JATO bottles. The aircraft had a largely conventional semi-monocoque fuselage, with the engines in underwing nacelles. Flight controls were hydraulic, and for storage below deck, the A-3's wings folded outboard of the engines, lying almost flat, and its vertical stabilizer was hinged to starboard.Capacious internal fuel tanks provided long range.

The early A-3 variants had a crew of three: pilot, bombardier/navigator (BN) and crewman/navigator (aka: third crewman). An unusual cockpit configuration was incorporated with the three crew sitting under a framed canopy. In the raised compartment, the pilot and bombardier/navigator sat in a side-by-side arrangement with the pilot's station on the port side having full flight controls. On initial variants, a third crew member, who also acted as a gunner for the twin tail-mounted 20mm cannon that briefly equipped the original bomber version of the A3D/A-3A (removed and replaced by ECM equipment), sat behind the pilot in an aft-facing seat. The third crewman station had the sextant for celestial navigation and the defensive electronic counter measures equipment. Later electronic reconnaissance variants could accommodate a crew of seven with the flight crew consisting of a pilot, co-pilot and navigator plus four electronic systems operators occupying stations in the former bomb bay in the spacious fuselage.

Efforts to reduce weight to make the aircraft suitable for carrier operations had led to the deletion of ejection seats during the design process for the Skywarrior, based on the assumption that most flights would be at high altitude. A similar arrangement with an escape tunnel had been used on the F3D Skyknight.[15] Aircrews began joking morbidly that "A3D" stood for "All Three Dead". (In 1973, the widow of a Skywarrior crewman killed over Vietnam sued the McDonnell Douglas Aircraft Company for not providing ejection seats in the A-3).In contrast, the US Air Force's B-66 Destroyer, not subject to the weight requirements for carrier operations, was equipped with ejection seats throughout its service life.

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02/10/2025

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