01/04/2026
The local Community Assembly has had assemblies with a very strong focus on addressing the issue of "housing" locally. This is clearly an issue that is important to the townsfolk. I have collated a large amount of valuable data on homelessness globally and nationally. It also looks at the migration of people which is also an issue that is very important to a lot of people too.
It is a lot to read but it provides a broad overview of homelessness under the following chapters. It does not and cannot cover all contributing factors. Nor can all sources of information be considered to be completely accurate. As stated, it is only meant to be a broad overview.
1) Trend summary - in which countries is homelessness increasing or decreasing?
2) Why is homelessness increasing in wealthy Western nations such as the UK?
3) The research identifies several interconnected causes of homelessness increasing in wealthy Western nations
4) Global armed conflict and persecution as push factors for migration to England
5) Asylum seekers who are granted refugee status in England who then become homeless contributing to an already chronic historical problem
6) Sources
Please note that I used an AI LLM agent (Large Language Model) to create this. For those not familiar with AI, or only used it a little, then it is important to know that it can make mistakes. When an AI system, particularly a Large Language Model, makes a mistake then it is most commonly called an "AI hallucination". An AI hallucination occurs when the model generates false, misleading, or fabricated information and presents it confidently as fact. Large Language Models predict the most likely next tokens so they optimize for fluency, not necessarily truth. They lack a built-in mechanism to distinguish what they "know" from what they are pattern-matching. Therefore gaps in training data can get filled with plausible-sounding completions. I have counteracted this as much as possible by telling the AI agent to only use reliable sources of information; which I have to say that I personally do not always agree with. I am sure there are others that would share the same sentiment. I also asked it to add footnote numbering for all sources in the footnotes. Again, as stated before, it is only meant to be a broad overview.
"The paradox: The richest countries have rising homelessness while some poorer countries do not - is explained by the fact that homelessness in wealthy nations is primarily a housing market problem, not a poverty problem in the traditional sense. These countries have the wealth to house everyone. The question is whether they choose to deploy that wealth into housing supply and affordability or allow market forces to price people out. As the US Interagency Council on Homelessness stated: "Homelessness is a policy choice." [24]
Finland proved that sustained government investment in Housing First and affordable housing can reduce homelessness even in a wealthy, high-cost country. The fact that no other wealthy nation has replicated this at scale is itself a policy choice."
Well done Finland.
# # # # # Global homelessness trends and why it is increasing in wealthy nations # # # # #
CHAPTERS:
1) Trend summary - in which countries is homelessness increasing or decreasing?
2) Why is homelessness increasing in wealthy Western nations such as the UK?
3) The research identifies several interconnected causes of homelessness increasing in wealthy Western nations
4) Global armed conflict and persecution as push factors for migration to England
5) Asylum seekers who are granted refugee status in England who then become homeless contributing to an already chronic historical problem
6) Sources
# # # TREND SUMMARY - IN WHICH COUNTRIES IS HOMELESSNESS INCREASING OR DECREASING?
DECREASING (or were decreasing):
- Finland: Fell from 16,000 (1989) to 3,400 (2023) through Housing First policy. Eleven consecutive years of decline before slight increase in 2024/2025 due to government cuts. Long-term homeless fell from 3,500 to 1,000 (2008-2020). [7] [8] [9] [10]
- Denmark: One of only two EU countries with falling long-term homelessness trend. [9]
- Japan: Fell to record low of 2,820 in 2024, 8% decrease in one year. Attributed to efficient social assistance policies. [5] [15]
INCREASING:
- England: Roughly doubled in past decade. Rough sleeping up 171% since 2010. Temporary accommodation at record highs. 354,000 homeless as of 2024. [11] [12] [13]
- Scotland: 34,067 households assessed as homeless in 2024-25 - highest since 2011-12. Temporary accommodation at record high of 18,092 households. Over 10,000 children in temporary accommodation. National housing emergency declared May 2024. [33] [34] [35]
- Wales: Households in temporary accommodation tripled from approximately 2,000 pre-pandemic to 6,447 at March 2024. Over 10,000 individuals in temporary accommodation throughout 2025. An estimated 128-166 rough sleepers on any given night. [38] [39]
- Northern Ireland: 5,408 households in temporary accommodation as of October 2025. Children in temporary accommodation more than doubled since January 2019 to 5,378 (November 2024). Social housing waiting list grew 80% since 2016-17 to 29,000 households. [40] [41]
- United States: 771,480 on a single night in 2024 - highest ever recorded. Increased every year recently. Hawaii nearly doubled 2019-2024. [5] [14]
- Australia: Increasing, with 122,494 homeless (2023). [1]
- New Zealand: Increasing, 102,123 homeless (2023). [1]
- Republic of Ireland: Increasing significantly. [1]
- France: Increasing steadily, 333,000 (2023). [1] [2]
- Germany: Increasing, partly due to refugee arrivals. [1]
- Brazil: Increased 25% in one year (2023-2024). [16]
- Canada: Increasing. [1]
CATASTROPHICALLY INCREASING (armed conflict-driven):
- Sudan: 14.3 million displaced due to civil war (2023-present). [17]
- Ukraine: 8.8 million displaced due to war with Russia (2022-present). [17]
- Palestine/Gaza: 90% of Gaza population displaced since October 2023. [17]
- Syria: Was catastrophically high, now potentially improving as refugees begin returning. 6.1 million refugees at end of 2024, declining. [17]
STABLE OR UNCLEAR:
- Most developing countries have insufficient data to determine trends.
- Many countries have not updated their statistics in years. [3] [4]
KEY FINDINGS
1. Homelessness is INCREASING in most wealthy Western nations. England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the US, Australia, New Zealand, Republic of Ireland, France, Germany, and Canada are all seeing rising numbers. [1] [2] [3]
2. Finland is the only major success story, achieving sustained reductions through the Housing First approach. However, even Finland's progress is now at risk due to government cuts. [7] [8] [9] [10]
3. The countries with the highest absolute numbers of homeless people are Nigeria (24.4 million), Syria (5.4 million), Bangladesh (5 million), Philippines (4.5 million), Argentina (3.6 million), and Ukraine (3.5 million). [1]
4. Armed conflict is the single biggest driver of large-scale homelessness. Sudan, Ukraine, Palestine, Syria, and Yemen account for tens of millions of displaced people. [17]
5. Data is severely lacking. Only 78 of 195 countries have official statistics. Many figures are years out of date. Definitions vary so wildly that direct country comparisons should be treated with extreme caution. [3] [4] [5]
6. In about half of OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries, more than 100 in every 100,000 people are homeless. [2] [3]
# # # WHY IS HOMELESSNESS INCREASING IN WEALTHY WESTERN NATIONS SUCH AS THE UK?
Homelessness is rising in most wealthy Western nations - England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the US, Australia, New Zealand, Republic of Ireland, France, Germany, and Canada are all seeing record or near-record numbers. This is counterintuitive. These are among the richest countries in human history.
UK-SPECIFIC EVIDENCE
ENGLAND
Homelessness in England has roughly doubled in a decade. The number of homeless households rose from 52,168 in 2010 to 109,658 in 2023. Rough sleeping reached a record high of 4,793 people on a single night in autumn 2025 - 171% higher than 2010. A record 134,760 households were in temporary accommodation as of September 2025, including 172,420 children. Shelter estimated 354,000 people were homeless in 2024. [11] [12] [13] [30]
Council spending on temporary accommodation reached 2.8 billion pounds in 2024/25, a 25% increase in one year and more than double (118% increase) the figure five years earlier. One third of this - 844 million pounds - was spent on emergency B&Bs and hostels. [11]
The primary drivers are the collapse of social housing construction (from over 100,000 council homes per year in the 1970s to fewer than 1,000 by the 2010s), the loss of approximately 2 million social homes through Right to Buy since 1980 without replacement, the shift to an insecure private rental sector, and welfare cuts including the freeze of housing benefit subsidies at 2011 levels. [13] [26]
The end of a private rented tenancy is now the single largest recorded cause of statutory homelessness in England. [26]
The government's own National Plan to End Homelessness (December 2025) acknowledged: "Too little truly affordable housing means councils are too often having to rely on poor-quality, high-cost options to house homeless households." Between 2019 and 2024, 74 children - 58 of them babies under one - died in circumstances where temporary accommodation potentially contributed to their death. [13]
SCOTLAND
In May 2024, the Scottish Government declared a national housing emergency - a formal recognition that the housing crisis had reached critical levels. Five local authorities, including Edinburgh and Glasgow, had already made their own emergency declarations. [36] [37]
In 2024-25, 34,067 households were assessed as homeless or threatened with homelessness - the highest figure since 2011-12. There were 40,688 homelessness applications in total - the second highest in the last decade. [33]
The number of households in temporary accommodation reached a record high of 17,240 at 31 March 2025, a 6% increase on the previous year. By 30 September 2025 this had risen further to 18,092 - a 9% increase on the same point in 2024. Over 10,000 children were in temporary accommodation throughout this period. [33] [35]
Rough sleeping is increasing. In the year to September 2025, 2,747 people slept rough the night before making a homeless application - 25% higher than the previous year. Instances of "failure to accommodate" (where households legally entitled to temporary accommodation were not offered it) reached 19,605 in the year to September 2025, a 45% increase on the previous year. [34]
The root causes mirror England's crisis: a chronic shortage of social housing, the lasting impact of Right to Buy depleting the housing stock, rising private rents, the cost of living crisis, and over a decade of UK government austerity. [36] [37]
Shelter Scotland calculates that Scotland needs to build a minimum of 15,693 social homes every year to tackle homelessness, but social house building is falling behind. In 2024-25, only 5,972 homes for social rent were completed - a 13% decrease on the previous year and the lowest since 2020-21. Approvals for new social rent homes fell 16% to the lowest level since 2014-15. The Scottish Government's affordable housing budget was cut by 196 million pounds before being partially restored. [34] [36]
The Scottish Government's Housing Emergency Action Plan (September 2025) acknowledged that over 10,000 children living in temporary accommodation was unacceptable and pledged action under its "Housing to 2040" strategy. However, Shelter Scotland warned the government is on course to break its promise of 110,000 affordable homes by 2032. [34] [36]
WALES
Homelessness in Wales has increased dramatically since the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the pandemic, approximately 2,000 households were in temporary accommodation at any given time. By 31 March 2024, this had tripled to 6,447 households - the highest figure since the current legislation (Housing (Wales) Act 2014) was introduced. The number remained elevated at 6,285 households at 31 March 2025. [38]
In terms of individuals, the number in temporary accommodation peaked at 11,721 in February 2024 before declining slightly. At 31 January 2026, 10,627 individuals were in temporary accommodation, including 2,255 dependent children under 16. Over 15,000 placements into temporary accommodation were made in the 12 months to January 2026, with repeat placements common (18% had been placed before within the past year). [39]
Bed and breakfast and hotel accommodation remains the most common form of temporary housing, accommodating approximately 2,500 individuals at any given time - an inadequate and expensive response to the crisis. [38] [39]
The Welsh Government introduced "no-one left out" emergency guidance during COVID-19 and in 2022 added a new priority need category for people who are "street homeless" to ensure no-one is forced to sleep rough. An estimated 116-166 individuals were sleeping rough on any given night throughout 2025. [38] [39]
The underlying causes mirror the rest of the UK: loss of social housing through Right to Buy, insufficient new building, rising private rents, welfare cuts including the freeze to Local Housing Allowance, and the cost of living crisis. "Breakdown of relationship with partner" (20%) and "loss of rented or tied accommodation" (18%) were the most common reasons for homelessness applications in 2024-25. [38]
NORTHERN IRELAND
Homelessness in Northern Ireland is managed by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive (NIHE) rather than local councils - unique among UK jurisdictions. A major 2025 report by the Northern Ireland Audit Office found the homelessness situation had deteriorated significantly. [40]
As of October 2025, 5,408 households were living in temporary accommodation. Over half (55.8%) had been there for less than 12 months, but 7.9% had been there for five years or more. The most common accommodation types were hotels and B&Bs (36.5%), followed by Dispersed Intensively Managed Emergency accommodation (22.6%). [41]
The number of children in temporary accommodation more than doubled from January 2019 to November 2024, reaching 5,378 children. In the six months from April to September 2025, 8,217 households presented as homeless, of which 5,366 (65.3%) were accepted as statutorily homeless. [40] [41]
NIHE gross spending on homelessness increased by 26 million pounds since 2020-21, with over half of total homelessness expenditure (38.6 million pounds in 2023-24) now going on temporary accommodation. The social housing waiting list grew by 80% since 2016-17, reaching 29,000 households with "full duty applicant" status by March 2024, while allocations as a proportion of the waiting list fell from 20% to 12%. [40]
Key drivers include: the freeze to Local Housing Allowance (frozen for four years until April 2024 while private rents rose by nearly 10% in the year to June 2024); a chronic shortage of social housing; the cost of living crisis; and increasing numbers of people with refugee leave to remain presenting to homelessness services (approximately 5% of homelessness acceptances and 10% of households in temporary accommodation as of January 2025). [40]
The NI Audit Office concluded that the NIHE's key objective of prioritising homelessness prevention had not been achieved, and that prevention funding had not been ring-fenced. In December 2024, the Communities Minister announced the intention to create a separate, ring-fenced prevention fund for the first time. [40]
THE COMMON THREAD ACROSS ALL ELEVEN COUNTRIES
Every one of these countries shares the same fundamental pattern:
- Housing supply has not kept pace with demand for decades
- Social and affordable housing has been cut or allowed to decline as a share of stock
- House prices and rents have risen far faster than incomes
- The private rental market has grown, increasing vulnerability to eviction
- The cost of living crisis post-2021 tipped more households over the edge
- Government responses have been insufficient to reverse the trend
The 2025 Eurobarometer found that 51% of urban dwellers across the EU identified a lack of affordable housing as an immediate and urgent problem. In the OECD's 2024 Risks that Matter Survey, more than half (55%) of respondents in 27 countries were concerned about finding or maintaining adequate housing. [31] [32]
# # # THE RESEARCH IDENTIFIES SEVERAL INTERCONNECTED CAUSES OF HOMELESSNESS INCREASING IN WEALTHY WESTERN NATIONS
CAUSE 1: HOUSING COSTS HAVE OUTSTRIPPED INCOMES
This is the single most evidenced cause. A large body of academic research has consistently found that homelessness in an area is driven by housing costs, whether expressed in terms of rents, rent-to-income ratios, or home prices. [18]
The Pew Charitable Trusts found that homelessness is high in urban areas where rents are high, and homelessness rises when rents rise. Conversely, cities that saw slow rent growth experienced declines in homelessness. [18]
The US Government Accountability Office found that when median rent in an area increased by just $100, homelessness rose by 9%. [19]
In the United States, median rents increased 23% between 2001 and 2023 (after adjusting for inflation), while renters' median incomes rose just 5%. [19] Half of all renters now spend at least 30% of their income on rent, and a quarter spend at least 50%. [18]
The Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies concluded: "The most fundamental driver of the nation's growing homelessness is the ongoing housing affordability crisis." [20]
Across the OECD, house prices surged after 2020, peaking in 2022. Only 43% of adults in OECD countries in 2024 said they were satisfied with local affordable housing availability, down from over 50% a decade earlier. Housing is the only public service where satisfaction has fallen by more than 10 percentage points since 2010 across OECD nations - healthcare, schools, transport, and roads have remained stable or declined less. [21] [22]
An OECD senior economist summarised the problem: "Basically we haven't built enough." [23]
CAUSE 2: CHRONIC UNDERSUPPLY OF HOUSING, ESPECIALLY SOCIAL AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING
Wealthy countries have systematically underbuilt housing for decades, particularly social and affordable rental housing.
In the United States, in 1970 there was a surplus of 300,000 affordable homes. Today, only 37 affordable homes are available for every 100 extremely low-income renters. [24]
The US Department of Housing and Urban Development's annual budget was cut from $83 billion to $18 billion between 1978 and 1983, devastating affordable housing construction. [25]
In England, council house building collapsed from over 100,000 per year in the 1970s to fewer than 1,000 per year by the 2010s. Right to Buy (introduced 1980) allowed tenants to purchase council homes at a discount, removing approximately 2 million homes from the social housing stock without replacing them. The government's own National Plan to End Homelessness (2025) acknowledged that "too little truly affordable housing means councils are too often having to rely on poor-quality, high-cost options to house homeless households." [13]
Across the OECD, social housing accounts for just 6-7% of the housing stock on average. Several countries have renewed commitments to invest more, but construction takes years to translate into available homes. [22]
In the UK, the private rented sector has grown from 13% of households in 2007 to around 20% in 2017, as homeownership has become unaffordable for more people. This shift pushes more people into a rental market where they have less security and are more vulnerable to eviction. [26]
CAUSE 3: WAGES HAVE NOT KEPT PACE WITH HOUSING COSTS
Even people in work are becoming homeless. In the United States, 40-60% of people experiencing homelessness have a job, but housing is unaffordable because wages have not kept up with rising rents. There is no county or state where a full-time minimum-wage worker can afford a modest apartment. At minimum wage, a worker would need to work 86 hours a week to afford a one-bedroom home. [24]
In Seattle, the fair market rent for a small efficiency apartment in 2025 is $2,238 per month, having risen by $1,467 over the last decade. Meanwhile, the maximum federal disability benefit (SSI) is $967 per month - uniform nationally regardless of local costs. [27]
70% of the lowest-wage households in the US spend more than half their income on rent, placing them at high risk of homelessness when any unexpected expense arises. [28]
This pattern repeats across wealthy nations. In the UK, 14 million people live in relative poverty, and the number relying on food banks surged from 25,000 in 2009 to over 3 million in 2024. [6]
CAUSE 4: WELFARE CUTS AND AUSTERITY
Research from the Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR) found direct causal links between welfare cuts and rising homelessness in the UK. When the UK government cut housing benefit (Local Housing Allowance) in 2011, the net fiscal savings for central government were "markedly offset by significantly higher local government spending to meet statutory obligations for prevention of homelessness." The cut led to widespread distress, rent arrears, and forced displacement. A one standard deviation increase in exposure to the housing benefit cut was associated with a 25% increase in families with children being classified as homeless. [26]
In the UK, the temporary accommodation subsidy (what central government pays towards housing homeless families) has been frozen at 2011 levels, meaning councils bear an ever-growing share of costs from their own shrinking budgets. Council spending on temporary accommodation more than doubled (118% increase) in the five years to 2024/25. [11]
In Finland - the one success story - the recent reversal of progress (first increase in homelessness in 11 years) has been directly attributed to the new government's cuts to social security, housing support, and income support. [9]
The US experience during COVID-19 proved the point from the other direction: when governments instituted eviction moratoriums, deployed emergency rental assistance, expanded unemployment assistance, and issued direct cash payments, poverty dropped by 45%, millions of evictions were prevented, and homelessness remained steady during a period when a surge would have been expected. When those measures ended, homelessness surged to record highs. [24] [28]
CAUSE 5: THE COST OF LIVING CRISIS
The post-2021 cost of living crisis - driven by energy price spikes, food inflation, and interest rate rises - pushed more people over the edge. When households already spending most of their income on rent face simultaneous increases in energy, food, and other costs, the margin for error disappears entirely.
In the OECD, dissatisfaction with housing peaked in 2022, the same year house prices peaked and the cost of living crisis was at its most severe. [21]
In the US, the median amount of income that a renter household has after paying for housing and utilities hit an all-time low, leaving people with the lowest incomes increasingly at risk of homelessness when any unexpected expense arises. [20]
First-time homelessness in the US has increased 23% since 2019, meaning more people are falling into homelessness for the first time rather than cycling through the system. [19]
CAUSE 6: EVICTIONS FROM THE PRIVATE RENTED SECTOR
As more people in wealthy countries rent privately (rather than owning or living in social housing), more are vulnerable to eviction. In the UK, the end of a private rented tenancy is now the single largest recorded cause of homelessness. [26]
Eviction filings in the US returned to pre-pandemic levels after the end of pandemic-era protections. [20]
Research has found that evictions and foreclosures disproportionately impact lower-income families, often leading to homelessness and long-term instability. [29]
CAUSE 7: MIGRATION AND POPULATION GROWTH
In some countries, migration has contributed to rising homelessness numbers, though researchers emphasise this is a secondary factor compared to housing supply and affordability.
In the US, the number of unhoused Hispanic people grew by 28% (40,000 people) from 2022 to 2023, far faster than the 7% increase among non-Hispanic unhoused people. In New York state, homelessness grew by 29,000 people from 2022 to 2023, of which 24,000 identified as Hispanic. [20]
In Germany, refugee arrivals since 2015 (and especially since the Ukraine crisis in 2022) have contributed to increased homelessness numbers. [22]
In England, the fivefold increase in refugee households presenting as homeless (from 3,560 to 19,310 between 2021/22 and 2024/25) has added pressure to an already overwhelmed system. [11]
However, researchers consistently emphasise that the fundamental driver is housing supply and affordability, not migration itself. Migration adds demand, but the system's inability to cope reflects decades of underbuilding and underinvestment.
CAUSE 8: EXPIRY OF PANDEMIC-ERA PROTECTIONS
The COVID-19 pandemic triggered unprecedented government intervention that temporarily held homelessness in check. When those measures ended, homelessness surged.
In the UK, the "Everyone In" programme housed rough sleepers in hotels during lockdowns. When it ended, many returned to the streets.
In the US, eviction moratoriums, rental assistance, expanded unemployment insurance, stimulus checks, and the enhanced Child Tax Credit all reduced poverty and prevented homelessness. When they expired, homelessness reached record levels in both 2023 and 2024. [24] [28]
This demonstrated that government action can prevent homelessness at scale, but also that removing protections without addressing underlying causes creates a rebound effect.
WHY FINLAND SUCCEEDED (AND WHAT IT TELLS US)
Finland is the only wealthy Western country to have achieved sustained reductions in homelessness. Its Housing First approach - giving homeless people permanent housing first, then addressing other issues - reduced homelessness from over 16,000 in 1989 to around 3,400 in 2023. Long-term homelessness fell from 3,500 to 1,000 between 2008 and 2020. [9] [7]
Key differences from other countries:
- Finland treats housing as a right, not a reward for overcoming personal problems first
- There are no more homeless shelters in Finland - they have all been converted to supported housing
- The approach saves money: annual savings of 9,600-15,000 euros per person compared to the costs of managing homelessness [7]
- Finland combined Housing First with sustained investment in building affordable and social housing
- It maintained consistent political commitment across different governments (until recently)
Finland's recent reversal (first increase in homelessness in over a decade, attributed to the new government's welfare cuts) reinforces the point: homelessness in wealthy countries is a policy choice, not an inevitable condition. When governments invest in housing and support, homelessness falls. When they cut investment, it rises. [9]
SUMMARY
The research is remarkably consistent across countries and institutions. Homelessness is rising in wealthy Western nations primarily because:
1. Housing costs have risen far faster than incomes for decades
2. Governments have chronically underbuilt social and affordable housing
3. Low wages mean even working people cannot afford rent
4. Welfare cuts and frozen benefits have removed safety nets
5. The cost of living crisis pushed vulnerable households over the edge
6. The shift from homeownership to private renting has increased eviction vulnerability
7. Migration has added demand in some countries, but into a system already failing
8. Pandemic-era protections that temporarily prevented homelessness have expired
# # # GLOBAL ARMED CONFLICT AND PERSECUTION AS PUSH FACTORS FOR MIGRATION TO ENGLAND
THE GLOBAL SCALE
At the end of 2024, an estimated 123.2 million people worldwide were forcibly displaced due to persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations and events seriously disturbing public order. This is an increase of 7 million people compared to the end of 2023. Displacement has almost doubled globally over the last decade. This equates to 1 in every 67 people on Earth. [17] [42]
More than one-third of all forcibly displaced people globally come from just four countries: Sudan, Syria, Afghanistan, and Ukraine. [17]
By the end of 2024, there were 42.7 million refugees worldwide. 69% of refugees originate from just five countries: Afghanistan, Syria, Sudan, Ukraine, and Venezuela. 66% of refugees lived in countries neighbouring their countries of origin. Low and middle-income countries hosted 71% of the world's refugees. Children account for 40% of all forcibly displaced people but make up only 29% of the world's population. [17] [43]
The war in Sudan is the world's largest displacement crisis. A total of 14.3 million Sudanese people remained displaced at the end of 2024 - nearly one in three of the national population. [17] [44]
CHANNEL CROSSING NATIONALITIES - WHAT THIS TELLS US
The top nationalities of people crossing the English Channel in small boats come overwhelmingly from countries experiencing war, state collapse, or severe persecution. [45]
In 2020: Iran 51%, Iraq 26%, Syria 6%, Afghanistan 4%, Yemen 2%, Eritrea 1%. [45] [46]
More recently (2024-2025): Sudanese, Eritrean, Afghan, Iranian and Iraqi nationals have been prominent. [45]
Iranians have been the most consistent nationality across the entire period of Channel crossings from 2018 onwards. [45]
COUNTRY BY COUNTRY: WHAT PEOPLE ARE FLEEING (only three countries described due to Facebook character count limits)
SUDAN
Sudan has become one of the fastest-growing source countries for Channel crossers since its civil war began in April 2023. [45]
What people are fleeing:
Civil war: On 15 April 2023, violent clashes erupted between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF). The war may have killed over 150,000 civilians through bombardments, massacres, starvation and disease (Le Monde estimate, November 2024). A total of 14.3 million people - nearly one in three of the national population - have been displaced. [47] [48] [54]
Genocide in Darfur: The RSF and allied Arab militias have conducted ethnically driven killings targeting the Masalit and other non-Arab groups in Darfur. In November 2023, RSF forces killed more than 800 people in a multi-day rampage in Ardamata, West Darfur. The UN estimated between 10,000 and 15,000 people were killed in West Darfur in 2023 alone due to ethnic violence. UNHCR warned this violence is emblematic of the genocide that killed an estimated 300,000 people in Darfur between 2003 and 2005. In October 2025, the fall of El Fasher triggered a genocidal massacre with estimates ranging from 60,000 to 150,000 dead. [49] [50] [54]
Sexual violence: The RSF and Arab militias are accused of widespread sexual violence against women and girls. NGOs estimate actual victim numbers could be as high as 4,400. In March 2024, UNICEF reported that armed men were ra**ng and sexually assaulting children as young as one year old. [49] [51]
Famine: In August 2024, famine was officially confirmed in the Darfur region. Half of Sudan's population - some 25 million people - need humanitarian assistance. Over 700,000 children were expected to suffer from severe acute malnutrition. Both the SAF and RSF have been reported to use starvation as a weapon of war by systematically obstructing the delivery of food and humanitarian aid. [51] [53]
Collapse of infrastructure: 80% of hospitals in worst-hit areas are not functioning. Almost all 19 million school-age children are out of school. 90% of all 23,000 schools have been closed, destroyed, or converted to military use or shelters. [49] [53]
Children: Sudan is the world's largest child displacement crisis. An estimated 5 million children have been displaced. Child soldier recruitment is common on both sides. [47] [52]
IRAN
Iran was the single largest source country for Channel crossers in 2018, 2019, and 2020 (51% in 2020). It remains a major source country. [45]
What people are fleeing:
Political persecution: Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran's ruling authorities have maintained power through strict control of political life. Opposition groups are banned, dissenting voices silenced. The 2009 Green Movement, the 2019 fuel protests, and the 2022 Woman Life Freedom demonstrations were all met with violent crackdowns. Political dissidents face arbitrary arrest, torture, surveillance, travel bans, and ex*****on. Authorities used the death penalty as a tool of political repression against protesters, dissidents and ethnic minorities. [55] [58]
The 2022 Woman Life Freedom uprising: Following the death of Mahsa Amini in morality police custody, nationwide protests erupted. A UN Fact-Finding Mission found gross human rights violations and crimes against humanity, including r**e of women protesters (including gang r**e), protester deaths characterised by the state as "suicides," and widespread use of mock ex*****ons amounting to torture. At least 10 men have been executed in connection with the protests, and at least 11 men and 3 women remain at risk of ex*****on. [55] [57]
Executions: In 2025, nearly 700 people had been hanged by mid-year. The death penalty is imposed for offences including drug trafficking, drinking alcohol, and consensual same-sex relationships. "Adultery" remains punishable by stoning to death. Two individuals were executed in relation to the 2022 uprising after convictions based on torture-tainted "confessions" - including a youth with a mental disability. [55] [56]
LGBTQ+ persecution: Iran's Islamic Penal Code explicitly criminalises same-sex relationships for both men and women. Same-sex sexual acts between men can carry the death penalty. Security forces harass, arrest, and detain individuals suspected or perceived as being LGBTQ+, including raiding homes and monitoring internet activity. The UK Home Office's own country guidance acknowledges that LGBTQ+ people in Iran face a real risk of persecution. Trans individuals are arrested for appearing "cross-dressed" in public. [59]
Women's rights: Women are treated as second-class citizens in relation to marriage, divorce, child custody, employment, inheritance and political office. The legal age of marriage for girls is 13, with judicial permission available for younger ages. Compulsory veiling is enforced through digital surveillance including facial recognition technology. Women human rights defenders face politically motivated charges carrying the death penalty. [55] [58] [60]
Religious minorities: Baha'is, Christians, Gonabadi Dervishes, Jews, Sunni Muslims and Yaresan face discrimination in law and practice including in education, employment, and worship. People born to Muslim parents risk the death penalty for "apostasy" if they adopt other religions or atheism. [58]
Ethnic minorities: Kurds, Baluchis, and Ahwazi Arabs face particular persecution. Security forces unlawfully kill unarmed Kurdish cross-border couriers and Baluchi fuel porters with impunity. [55]
Transnational repression: Iran targets dissidents abroad, including in the UK. A UK parliamentary report stated Iran represents "one of the highest kidnap and assassination state threats to the UK." Security agencies have investigated more than 20 credible threats to life linked to Iran since 2022. In 2019, a journalist and dissident living in France was abducted while visiting Iraq, forcibly returned to Iran, and executed in 2020. [61] [62]
ERITREA
Eritrean nationals consistently appear among Channel crossers. As of 2025, 679,346 Eritreans (11% of the population) were outside the country as refugees and asylum seekers. [43]
What people are fleeing:
Indefinite military conscription: National service legally requires 18 months but in practice is open-ended, often lasting decades. The UK Home Office's own guidance states it is "coercive and marked by abuse and inhuman treatment" and "has been likened to forced labour and slavery." [63]
The UK government told the UN Human Rights Council it "is the primary reason so many of Eritrea's young people seek to leave the country." [64]
The UN Commission of Inquiry found citizens are "subject to national service and forced labour that effectively abuse, exploit and enslave them for indefinite periods of time." [70]
Conscripts receive token wages insufficient for basic needs. Those taking unauthorised leave face imprisonment; if they cannot be found, family members are imprisoned instead. Detainees are kept in underground cells or shipping containers. Those attempting to flee across the border risk being shot. The UK Upper Tribunal held that draft evaders or deserters face "a real risk of persecution, serious harm or ill-treatment" on return. [63] [65] [67]
Children drop out of school early to avoid conscription. Girls are married off young in hopes of making them ineligible. There is no provision for conscientious objection. [63] [67]
No political freedom: Eritrea has no freedom of speech, movement, or worship beyond state-sanctioned faiths. Only one political party exists. No elections have been held since independence. The 1997 constitution has never been implemented. [65] [66]
Religious persecution: Minority Christians face particular persecution. Conscripts found praying face detention and torture. Thousands are imprisoned for their faith. [65]
Transnational repression: The government harasses and silences diaspora members through embassies and party structures. A 2% "diaspora tax" is enforced through coercion. [68] [69]
UNHCR has advised against all deportations to Eritrea given pervasive human rights violations and risk of torture upon return. [66]
Note: This chapter focuses on the countries most represented among Channel crossers. Other major displacement crises - including Ukraine, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Myanmar/Rohingya, Venezuela, and Gaza - are not covered here as they are less directly represented in UK Channel crossings.
Figures may have been updated since compilation. Check UNHCR Refugee Data Finder (unhcr.org/refugee-statistics) for the most current data.
# # # ASYLUM SEEKERS WHO ARE GRANTED REFUGEE STATUS IN ENGLAND AND THEN BECOME HOMELESS CONTRIBUTING TO AN ALREADY CHRONIC HISTORICAL PROBLEM
THE SCALE OF THE PROBLEM
The number of newly recognised refugees in England who are homeless or at risk of homelessness soared from 3,560 in 2021/22 to 19,310 in 2024/25 - a fivefold increase in four years. [71] [79]
Refugee homelessness increased by 348% in one year alone. Between January and March 2024, 4,840 households with newly granted refugees were homeless, compared to the same period the previous year. An additional 1,270 refugee households were at risk of homelessness. [71]
Refugee Council analysis showed 15,440 refugee households were supported by local councils in England between January and September 2025. Of these, 10,170 were under the relief duty, meaning councils were required to actively relieve their homelessness. [71]
The number of people sleeping rough after leaving asylum seeker accommodation jumped by 223% in just three months between June and September 2023. [78]
In Westminster alone, the number of people sleeping on its streets rose by more than 900% in one year. The council leader directly attributed this to the government policy of moving refugees out of accommodation after 28 days. [72]
The No Accommodation Network (NACCOM) recorded 1,941 refugee adults who were made homeless in 2023/24 - a 99% increase on the year before, and the largest cohort of refugees their network has ever accommodated. 850 people were sleeping rough at the point of accessing their members' services, 125% more than the previous year. [75]
WHY THIS HAPPENS - THE "MOVE-ON PERIOD"
When someone is granted refugee status, their asylum accommodation and financial support ends. They are given a short notice period to leave - this is called the "move-on period."
The standard move-on period was 28 days. In 2023, under the Sunak government's push to clear the asylum backlog, some refugees received as little as 7 days' notice to leave. The Home Office said the 28-day period hadn't changed, but the way it was calculated did - it now started when the decision letter was sent rather than when the Biometric Residence Permit was received. Since the BRP could take weeks to arrive, and refugees need the BRP to apply for Universal Credit or get a job, many were left with just days of actual usable time. [72]
The Labour government introduced a 56-day pilot in December 2024. This pilot prevented an estimated 1,000 refugee households from becoming homeless. However, the pilot was amended in September 2025 to exclude single adults unless they were pregnant, over 65 or had a disability. The move-on period was then set at 42 days from March 2026. [71]
Even with 56 days, only 43% of refugee households were able to secure housing during the pilot. Four in five refugees reported finding housing was "difficult" or "very difficult." Those who couldn't find a home ended up in hostels, rough sleeping or sofa surfing. [71]
THE STRUCTURAL TRAP
Universal Credit takes at least 35 days for the first payment. The move-on period was 28 days. This created an automatic gap where newly recognised refugees had neither asylum support nor mainstream benefits - a financial "black hole." [72] [77]
Refugees cannot work while waiting for their asylum claim to be decided, so they have no savings for a deposit or rent. Once granted status, they are expected to navigate a housing market they have never participated in, often with limited English and no UK rental history. [77]
Single adults without children - who make up a large proportion of newly recognised refugees - are often ranked as "low priority" by local councils. They do not meet the "priority need" threshold for emergency housing under homelessness law. [71] [78]
The social housing system operates on rigid eligibility criteria and local connection rules. Refugees may find their "official" local connection is tied to an area they have never set foot in, because the Home Office dispersed them to wherever accommodation was available. They face an impossible choice: move somewhere they have no connections, or become ineligible for housing where they actually live. [71]
Right to Rent rules create additional barriers. In 2019, 44% of landlords said they were less likely to rent to someone without a British passport because of Right to Rent rules. [78]
PERSONAL ACCOUNTS
Awek, granted refugee status in 2022, told Big Issue: "Along with refugee status came a letter telling me to leave the hotel accommodation. Now I was confused but had to leave. There was no proper guidance. I was handed a few contact numbers for support services, but most went unanswered. The silence felt loud. I became homeless for weeks. I slept rough outside and I rode buses with no destination - just to keep moving, just to stay warm. It was extremely cold outside. I would not wish that experience even to my worst enemy." [71]
Ibrahim, a Syrian concrete carpenter granted refugee status in July 2023, described to Big Issue what happened: "When I got my documents a lot of people got their documents, they gave them to everybody fast. They gave me one month's notice and then I had to get my stuff and leave the hotel. As a single guy I went to the council to ask them and they say, 'Yeah, we will contact you.' I stayed on the streets and didn't get one call off them. Many times I went to them and they told me it was difficult and just go." He spent three months in a night shelter and considered returning to sleeping rough before a charity helped him. [74]
Yusra, a 26-year-old Sudanese refugee sleeping in a tent in Greater Manchester, told the BBC: "Sometimes drunk people come and try to open the tent and I start screaming. I can't sleep until the morning." [72]
A British Red Cross refugee service manager said: "In parts of Greater Manchester, homelessness for single men has almost become a guaranteed part of getting refugee status. The mental health impact of this is shocking. For people going through the asylum system, waiting for months and sometimes years for good news, it's deeply demoralising for this to be the next step." [72]
WHAT SHELTER SAYS
Shelter advises refugees that their asylum support housing ends 4 weeks after they get refugee status and they have to find somewhere to live. Shelter tells refugees to ask a local council for help with housing as soon as they get their Home Office decision letter, and not to leave their asylum accommodation yet. [77]
Shelter notes that certain groups automatically have "priority need" for emergency housing: pregnant women, people with children, care leavers under 21, victims of domestic abuse, people who are "vulnerable" due to age, disability or health conditions. For everyone else - particularly single adults - it is much harder to get emergency accommodation from a council. [77]
Shelter advises refugees to apply for Universal Credit as soon as they get their status, noting it takes at least 5 weeks to get the first payment. They also note that refugees need a National Insurance number to work or claim benefits, and that the eVisa system (which replaced the physical Biometric Residence Permit) has caused additional confusion and delays. [77]
WHAT CRISIS SAYS
Crisis found that the largest proportion of destitute migrants in the UK were current or former asylum seekers. This group accounted for 38% of all destitute migrants. Of these, 36% had leave to remain or refugee status - meaning they had been officially recognised as refugees but were still destitute. 41% were awaiting a decision and 9% had been refused asylum. [78]
Since 2014/15, the number of rough sleepers in London whose last settled base was asylum support accommodation has increased year on year. [78]
Crisis reported that 478 of their new clients in 2016/17 approached because they had nowhere to live after leaving asylum accommodation, an increase from 316 the year before. [78]
Crisis has called for the removal of "no recourse to public funds" conditions and the Right to Rent policy, arguing these policies push vulnerable people further into homelessness rather than helping them. [78]
THE CHARITY RESPONSE
Frontline charities have been overwhelmed. NACCOM members saw an 83% increase in the number of people helped in 2023-24, with a significant increase in those turned away because there was no capacity. Volunteer organisations have been forced to hand out tents and sleeping bags to people they cannot house. [75]
The Refugee Council called it a "refugee homelessness emergency on an unprecedented scale." [71]
Rick Henderson, CEO of Homeless Link, said: "Reducing the move-on period is guaranteed to increase rough sleeping and homelessness among an extremely vulnerable group of people, at the exact time that the government is planning further funding to reduce rough sleeping. It makes a mockery of their commitment to the new cross-departmental strategy to end homelessness." [73]
The Big Issue investigation found that UK cities expected at least 6,900 people to be evicted from asylum accommodation by the end of 2023, with little capacity to help them. [72]
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Labour government's National Plan to End Homelessness was published in December 2025 with 3.5 billion pounds in funding over three years. However, the Big Issue reported there is "no coherent approach for supporting refugees" in the strategy, despite the crisis being well documented. The government said it is "committed to helping refugees transition" and is "working with local authorities." [76]
The Home Office ran a 56-day pilot that prevented homelessness for an estimated 1,000 households. Despite this evidence, the pilot was scaled back. A Home Office spokesperson told Big Issue: "This government inherited a broken asylum and immigration system. We are taking practical steps to turn that chaos around." [71]
A UK Parliament Early Day Motion tabled in 2024-26 noted the fivefold increase and called on the government to reinstate the 56-day period permanently. It was signed by 19 MPs. [80]
A GOV.UK evaluation published in December 2025 acknowledged the problem directly: "Data suggests that those granted refugee status are often unable to secure alternative accommodation during the notice period and this is leading to both homelessness and rough sleeping." It also noted that Home Office and housing ministry priorities "had previously been in conflict" - the push to clear the asylum backlog increased homelessness while the housing ministry was telling councils to reduce it. [79]
Note: Some figures may have been updated since compilation. Check sources directly for the most current data.
# # # SOURCES:
[1] World Population Review - "Homelessness by Country 2026"
worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/homelessness-by-country
[2] Our World in Data - "Homelessness"
ourworldindata.org/homelessness
[3] OECD Affordable Housing Database - Country notes on homelessness data
oecd.org/els/family/HC3-1-Homeless-population.pdf
[4] Ruff Institute of Global Homelessness - Map of Global Homelessness
ighomelessness.org/global-homeless-data/
[5] DevelopmentAid - "Homelessness statistics in the world"
developmentaid.org/news-stream/post/157797/homelessness-statistics-in-the-world
[6] World Economic Forum - "Homelessness: what drives it and what's needed to end it"
weforum.org/stories/2024/08/homelessness-urban-housing-affordability/
[7] Finland: OECD Ecoscope - "Finland's Zero Homeless Strategy" (2021)
oecdecoscope.blog/2021/12/13/finlands-zero-homeless-strategy-lessons-from-a-success-story/
[8] Finland: Housing First Europe
housingfirsteurope.eu/country/finland/
[9] Finland: Wikipedia - "Homelessness in Finland"
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homelessness_in_Finland
[10] Finland: Pulitzer Center - "A Look Into Finland's Housing First Initiative"
pulitzercenter.org/stories/look-finlands-housing-first-initiative
[11] England: Shelter England - "Bill for homeless accommodation soars by 25%"
england.shelter.org.uk/media/press_release/bill_for_homeless_accommodation_soars_by_25_hitting_28_bn_
[12] England: Big Issue - "Homelessness facts and statistics 2026"
bigissue.com/news/housing/britains-homelessness-shame-cold-hard-facts/
[13] England: GOV.UK - "A National Plan to End Homelessness"
gov.uk/government/publications/a-national-plan-to-end-homelessness/a-national-plan-to-end-homelessness
[14] United States: HUD 2024 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report
huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2024-AHAR-Part-1.pdf
[15] Japan: Japan Times - "Number of homeless in Japan hits record low" (April 2024)
japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/04/26/japan/society/homeless-people-record-low/
[16] Brazil: Agencia Brasil (January 2025)
agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/en/direitos-humanos/noticia/2025-01/homeless-population-brazil-rises-25-one-year
[17] Global displacement: UNHCR Global Trends Report 2024
unhcr.org/global-trends-report-2024
[18] Pew Charitable Trusts - "How Housing Costs Drive Levels of Homelessness"
pew.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2023/08/22/how-housing-costs-drive-levels-of-homelessness
[19] National Alliance to End Homelessness - "State of Homelessness: 2025 Edition"
endhomelessness.org/state-of-homelessness/
[20] Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies - "Record Homelessness Amid Ongoing Affordability Crisis"
jchs.harvard.edu/blog/record-homelessness-amid-ongoing-affordability-crisis
[21] Gallup/OECD - "Housing Affordability Crisis Hits Wealthy Economies"
news.gallup.com/poll/659834/housing-affordability-crisis-hits-wealthy-economies.aspx
[22] OECD - Affordable Housing (topic page)
oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/affordable-housing.html
[23] Axios - "The global housing affordability crisis"
axios.com/2024/09/06/the-global-housing-affordability-crisis
[24] US Interagency Council on Homelessness - "Homelessness Data & Trends"
usich.gov/guidance-reports-data/data-trends
[25] Equitable Growth - "The economic impact of housing insecurity in the United States"
equitablegrowth.org/the-economic-impact-of-housing-insecurity-in-the-united-states/
[26] CEPR - "Housing insecurity, homelessness, and populism: Evidence from the UK"
cepr.org/voxeu/columns/housing-insecurity-homelessness-and-populism-evidence-uk
[27] DESC (Downtown Emergency Service Center) - "Housing affordability crisis main driver"
desc.org/ssi-vs-rent-2025/
[28] Center on Budget and Policy Priorities - "Rising Homelessness Highlights Need to Invest in Proven Solutions"
cbpp.org/blog/rising-homelessness-highlights-need-to-invest-in-proven-solutions-reject-policies-that-worsen
[29] CEPR - "Housing and inequality: A critical link in economic disparities"
cepr.org/voxeu/columns/housing-and-inequality-critical-link-economic-disparities
[30] Europe: Euronews - "Homelessness on the rise: how do European countries compare?"
euronews.com/my-europe/2024/07/15/homelessness-on-the-rise-in-uk-and-france-how-do-european-countries-compare
[31] Europe: European Parliament - "Housing crisis: why prices are rising and what the EU is doing about it"
europarl.europa.eu/topics/en/article/20241014STO24542/rising
[32] OECD - "The social economy in housing" (Social Economy in Europe report)
oecd.org/en/publications/social-economy-in-europe_3432de93-en/full-report/the-social-economy-in-housing_8ea4ce10.html
[33] Scotland: Scottish Government - "Homelessness in Scotland: 2024-25" (Accredited Official Statistics)
gov.scot/publications/homelessness-in-scotland-2024-25/
[34] Scotland: Shelter Scotland - "Homelessness statistics in Scotland"
scotland.shelter.org.uk/housing_policy/homelessness_in_scotland/
[35] Scotland: Scottish Government - "Homelessness in Scotland: update to 30 September 2025"
gov.scot/publications/homelessness-in-scotland-update-to-30-september-2025/
[36] Scotland: Shelter Scotland - "What is the housing emergency in Scotland"
scotland.shelter.org.uk/campaigning/what_is_the_housing_emergency
[37] Scotland: SPICe (Scottish Parliament Information Centre) - "Scotland's Housing Emergency - one year on"
spice-spotlight.scot/2025/05/15/scotlands-housing-emergency-one-year-on/
[38] Wales: Welsh Government - "Homelessness: April 2024 to March 2025"
gov.wales/homelessness-april-2024-march-2025-html
[39] Wales: Welsh Government - "Homelessness accommodation provision and rough sleeping: January 2026"
gov.wales/homelessness-accommodation-provision-and-rough-sleeping-january-2026-html
[40] Northern Ireland: NI Audit Office - "Homelessness in Northern Ireland" (2025)
niauditoffice.gov.uk/publications/html-document/homelessness-northern-ireland-report
[41] Northern Ireland: NISRA - "Northern Ireland Homelessness Bulletin April-September 2025"
nisra.gov.uk/news/more-8000-households-presented-homeless
Global armed conflict and persecution sources:
[42] UNHCR Figures at a Glance
unhcr.org/about-unhcr/overview/figures-glance
[43] USA for UNHCR - Refugee Statistics
unrefugees.org/refugee-facts/statistics/
[44] HIAS - "UNHCR: Global Forced Displacement Surges Past 122 million"
hias.org/news/unhcr-global-forced-displacement-surges-past-122-million/
[45] Oxford Migration Observatory - "People crossing the English Channel in small boats"
migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/people-crossing-the-english-channel-in-small-boats/
[46] Wikipedia - "English Channel illegal migrant crossings (2018-present)"
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channel_illegal_migrant_crossings_(2018-present)
[47] UNHCR - Sudan Emergency
reporting.unhcr.org/operational/situations/sudan-situation
[48] Council on Foreign Relations - "Civil War in Sudan" (Global Conflict Tracker)
cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/power-struggle-sudan
[49] UN OCHA - "Sudan: One Year of Conflict - Key Facts and Figures" (April 2024)
unocha.org/publications/report/sudan/sudan-one-year-conflict-key-facts-and-figures-15-april-2024
[50] Migration Policy Institute - "Forgotten and Neglected, War-Torn Sudan" (July 2025)
migrationpolicy.org/article/sudan-civil-war-displacement
[51] International Rescue Committee - "Crisis in Sudan"
rescue.org/article/crisis-sudan-what-happening-and-how-help
[52] USA for UNHCR - "Sudan Conflict"
unrefugees.org/emergencies/sudan/
[53] UN News - "Sudan, the most devastating humanitarian and displacement crisis in the world" (February 2025)
news.un.org/en/story/2025/02/1160161
[54] Wikipedia - "Sudanese civil war (2023-present)"
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanese_civil_war_(2023-present)
[55] Amnesty International - "Human rights in Iran" (annual report)
amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/iran/report-iran/
[56] Amnesty International - "Iran: Horrifying secret ex*****ons amid mounting political repression" (July 2025)
amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/07/iran-horrifying-secret-ex*****ons-amid-mounting-political-repression/
[57] UN Fact-Finding Mission on Iran
wncri.org/2025/03/15/fact-finding-mission-on-iran/
[58] UN OHCHR Special Rapporteur findings on Iran (2024)
ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/countries/iran/20240717-SR-Iran-Findings.pdf
[59] GOV.UK - Country policy: sexual orientation and gender identity, Iran (December 2025)
gov.uk/government/publications/iran-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-or-expression-iran-june-2022-accessible
[60] GOV.UK - Country policy: social media, surveillance and sur place activities, Iran (April 2025)
gov.uk/government/publications/iran-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-social-media-surveillance-and-sur-place-activities-iran-april-2025-accessible
[61] Human Rights Watch - "We Will Find You: How Governments Repress Nationals Abroad" (2024)
hrw.org/report/2024/02/22/we-will-find-you/global-look-how-governments-repress-nationals-abroad
[62] Iran International - reporting on transnational repression and UK parliamentary report
iranintl.com/en/202507304825
[63] GOV.UK - Country policy: national service and illegal exit, Eritrea (December 2025)
gov.uk/government/publications/eritrea-country-policy-and-information-notes/country-policy-and-information-note-national-service-and-illegal-exit-eritrea-december-2025-accessible
[64] GOV.UK - UK Statement on Eritrea at UN Human Rights Council (2023)
gov.uk/government/news/hrc52-uk-statement-on-eritrea
[65] Human Rights Watch - "Service for Life: State Repression and Indefinite Conscription in Eritrea"
hrw.org/report/2009/04/16/service-life/state-repression-and-indefinite-conscription-eritrea
[66] Amnesty International - "Eritrea: Refugees fleeing indefinite conscription must be given safe haven" (2015)
amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2015/12/eritrea-refugees-fleeing-indefinite-conscription-must-be-given-safe-haven/
[67] Amnesty International - "Just Deserters: Why Indefinite National Service in Eritrea Is a Driver of Migration"
amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/AFR6429302015ENGLISH.pdf
[68] Right to Remain - "Politics before protection: the story of Eritrean asylum seekers in the UK"
righttoremain.org.uk/politics-before-protection-the-story-of-eritrean-asylum-seekers-in-the-uk/
[69] UK Parliament written evidence on Eritrean transnational repression
committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/138072/html/
[70] MDPI (academic journal) - "The Eritrean Military/National Service Programme: Slavery and the Notion of Persecution"
mdpi.com/2075-471X/10/2/28
Asylum seekers granted refugee status and homelessness sources:
[71] Big Issue - "Home Office refugee council homelessness" (March 2026)
bigissue.com/news/housing/home-office-refugee-council-homelessness/
[72] Big Issue - "Asylum seekers refugee homelessness crisis UK Home Office" (December 2023)
bigissue.com/news/social-justice/asylum-seekers-refugee-homelessness-crisis-uk-home-office/
[73] Big Issue - "Asylum hotels move-on period refugees Home Office" (August 2025)
bigissue.com/news/social-justice/asylum-hotels-move-on-period-refugees-home-office/
[74] Big Issue - "Homeless refugees housing justice" (March 2025)
bigissue.com/news/housing/homeless-refugees-housing-justice/
[75] Big Issue - "Refugee homelessness NACCOM UK 2025" (December 2024)
bigissue.com/opinion/refugee-homelessness-naccom-uk-2025/
[76] Big Issue - "Homelessness strategy Labour England" (December 2025)
bigissue.com/news/housing/homelessness-strategy-labour-england/
[77] Shelter - "Refugees: Moving on from asylum support housing"
england.shelter.org.uk/housing_advice/homelessness/refugees_moving_on_from_asylum_support_housing
[78] Crisis - "Everybody In: How to End Homelessness in Great Britain" Chapter 12: Ending migrant homelessness
crisis.org.uk/ending-homelessness/the-plan-to-end-homelessness-full-version/solutions/chapter-12-ending-migrant-homelessness/
[79] GOV.UK - "Systems-wide evaluation of homelessness and rough sleeping" (December 2025)
gov.uk/government/publications/systems-wide-evaluation-of-homelessness-and-rough-sleeping/
[80] UK Parliament - Early Day Motion 65211 (2024-26 session)
edm.parliament.uk/early-day-motion/65211
Note: Homelessness data is among the most unreliable and inconsistent data collected anywhere in the world. Definitions vary wildly between countries. Some countries count people on a single night, others over a year. Some include only rough sleepers, others include people in shelters, temporary accommodation, or inadequate housing. Some countries have not updated their figures for over a decade. All figures should be treated as rough approximations and direct country-to-country comparisons should be made with extreme caution. [3] [4]
